Version 1.0, November 2015 SHORT COURSE BASIC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING COURSE Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response This material was prepared by the IAEA and co-funded by the European Union.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response INTRODUCTION Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Get to know the fact that no nuclear power plant is 100% safe. 2.Understand the need for the emergency preparedness process to support an effective emergency response. 3.Get to know basic terminology such as nuclear emergency, on-site and off-site areas. 4.Distinguish on-site and off-site emergency preparedness and response. 5.Get to know how this module is organised. 2

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Electricity is essential today Different types of power plants Nuclear power plants generate 11% of electricity All power plants have benefits and drawbacks Nuclear accident is the biggest drawback of NPPs − New designs are safer − But nothing is 100 % safe 3  We still need to be prepared, to the extent practicable, to respond to nuclear emergencies!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response When one is prepared enough? Preparing for emergencies should be adequate to enable effective response It is difficult to draw a line where one is prepared enough In practice it also depends on available resources Nuclear emergency preparedness and response is not proportional to country size! 4

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Scope of the Module and terms used EPR = Emergency Preparedness and Response Emphasis given to an emergency at NPP − Nuclear emergency = Emergency in which the hazard is due to nuclear chain reaction or from decay of its products This module is based on current good practices and international safety standards − IAEA safety standards in EPR 5

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response On-site & Off-site On-site = Area within the security perimeter, fence or other designated property marker under control of the facility Off-site = Area beyond that under control of the facility 6  Our topic is EPR of local, regional and national response organizations and the operating organization  Aspects of coping with the accidents within NPP is also covered in Module 15

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Road book for this Module Basic Concepts - Facts and phenomena for better understanding Past nuclear accidents - Practical reasoning for EPR Establishing EPR - Setting up EPR Functional & Infrastructural elements – All the functions to be performed in emergency response and infrastructure necessary to support them Role of the IAEA in EPR Overview of the IAEA publications − Safety standards − Technical guidance and − Other technical tools 7

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response BASIC CONCEPTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.List specific characteristics of nuclear emergency. 2.List goals of emergency response. 3.Explain goals of emergency preparedness. 4.List the radiation exposure pathways. 5.Explain the different radiation exposure pathways. 6.Explain the term “Source Term”. 7.Understand differences between controlled and uncontrolled release. 8.Get to know background of dose calculations. 9.Understand limitations of dose calculations. 10.Get to know radiation exposure in relation to protective actions. 8

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Natural disasters Brought about by change in natural phenomena Earthquakes, flooding … Man has no influence on 9

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Manmade disasters Result of − System failure − Human or organizational failure − Intentional acts Nuclear accident at NPP − Can be triggered by a natural disaster as well 10

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Particularities of nuclear accidents Danger is coming − From highly complex manmade machine − In a form of ionizing radiation − Less known to population and general rescue services − Induces fear and other psychological effects Consequences to population and environment − Can be prevented if accident is contained within the NPP safety barriers − Can be devastating to population, environment and nation’s economy Nuclear accident is quite different from natural disasters 11  Even though probability is very low, we need to prepare thoroughly for nuclear accidents and maintain adequate capability

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Challenge of competence Understanding of ionizing radiation and nuclear technology is primarily limited to: − Operator of nuclear power plant and its competent employees − Government authority responsible for nuclear and radiation safety Government authority responsible for dealing with all types of emergencies may not necessarily have knowledge and competences in nuclear and radiation safety − However, they provide rescue and relief services in nuclear emergency as well 12  Thus, good cooperation and coordinating mechanism are essential for successful EPR

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Response goals Primary emergency response goals Take control of situation and mitigate the consequences Prevent severe deterministic effects Reasonably reduce the risk of stochastic effects 13

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Additional response goals Rendering first aid Providing critical medical treatment Managing treatment of radiation injuries Keeping public informed Maintaining public trust Mitigating non-radiological consequences Protecting property and the environment Preparing for the resumption of normal social and economic activity 14

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparedness goals Emergency preparedness makes sure that Adequate response capability exists Always ready - to mitigate consequences! 15

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparedness in a nut shell Documents − Legal framework − National nuclear emergency plan − To set roles and responsibilities for all parties involved in preparedness process and response − Under effective management system People − Sufficient number of people: qualified, trained, fit for duty − To run the preparedness process − To take positions in emergency response 16

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparedness in a nut shell /cont. Communication & Equipment − Reliable, secure and redundant communication systems − Equipment to support response Training, testing, exercising − Process needs to be set up to regularly − Train people for their positions, applying SAT − Test all communication and other equipment to assure operability − Exercise response 17  Everything must be set on all levels for all involved organizations - from national down to local and the operator

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Doses For evaluating radiological consequences on human health Can be calculated or measured To be associated with health effects: − How the doses are measured and calculated, i.e. what type of dose it is − Knowing the exact exposure pathway − Who is exposed − Radionuclides involved 18

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Deterministic and stochastic effects Deterministic effects − Early or acute health effects − Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) weighted absorbed dose to an organ or tissue − Unit is the gray (Gy) Stochastic effects − Late health effects − Equivalent dose to an organ or tissue − Unit is the sievert (Sv) Stochastic effects in exposed population − Effective dose − Unit is the sievert (Sv) 19

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions When doses are to exceed those at which radiation induced health effects can be expected, protective actions are almost always justified to be taken, such as: − Iodine thyroid blocking − Evacuation − Sheltering − Restrictions on contaminated food, milk, drinking water and other commodities − Relocation 20

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Types of releases Nuclear emergency can produce two types of releases: − Airborne goes into the atmosphere, forming a plume − Liquid is discharged into water bodies (ground water, rivers, lakes and the sea) 21

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Airborne release Usually main concern as it may result to exposures of population with serious health consequences Radionuclides released to environment as − Gases − Aerosol particles − Water soluble substances − Slightly soluble oxides 22

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Ground contamination Deposition can be increased by precipitation (rain) − Washes down radionuclides − Hot spots along the rainwater path Hot spots = areas with higher radiation or contamination levels 23

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Exposure pathways The plume and deposition are primary sources of dose via: 1. Inhalation 2. Cloud shine 3. Ground shine 4. Ingestion 5. Inadvertent ingestion 6. Skin contamination 24 inadvertent ingestion

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Relevance of the pathways During release, the following pathways are predominant: Inhalation Cloud shine Ground shine Skin contamination and After plume has passed, the following pathways are predominant: Ground shine Intake of contaminated food, milk, water and Inadvertent ingestion 25

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Actual doses received Actual doses received depend on Release itself (source term) − Composition and − Released activities Weather (wind, rain etc.) − During release − After the release Protective actions taken 26

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Source term Source term = ? The composition of release itself Defined by characteristics of radioactive material released − Quantity or magnitude − Timing − Chemical species and − Physical forms Source term is always subject to uncertainty 27

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Big uncertainty Early - before or during initial release − Very little is known with certainty The operators should know − If there is core damage − But not the size or timing of a release Behaviour of released material − Very complex and − Unpredictable 28  Only information early on that can be used confidently is the core status!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dose calculations Potential dose is calculated by dose models and software − e.g. InterRAS, RODOS This is projected dose Used for − Planning purposes − Easier decision making later in an emergency response 29

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions should not be based on dose calculations Protective actions must be initiated BEFORE a major release  Protective action decisions to be based on core damage Because of: − High probability of a major release given core damage − Relative ease to detect major core damage − Large uncertainties associated with projecting containment failure − Great difficulties to make accurate dose calculations 30

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response PAST NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Understand the reasoning for nuclear emergency preparedness and response through brief overview of the most well known past nuclear accidents. 31

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response To remind us all! Even today we can never be 100% sure that nothing would happen Past accidents provide lessons identified and hopefully learned Major nuclear accidents: − Three Mile Island (1979) − Chernobyl (1986) − Fukushima Daiichi (2011) 32

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Three Mile Island accident (TMI) 28 March, 1979, USA Partial core meltdown Radioactive impact not significant But immense non-radiological impact Rated INES 5 33

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Chernobyl accident 26 April, 1986, USSR Ukraine today Significant amounts of radioactive material released High into the atmosphere, and far away Significant increase in thyroid cancer among children more than 350 km from the site Contamination levels exceeded in agricultural products more than 1000 km away Rated INES 7 34

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Fukushima Daiichi accident 11 March, 2011, Japan As a consequence of extreme natural disaster, strong earthquake followed by tsunami Multiple core meltdowns Multiple releases over a couple of weeks to the atmosphere and for months to the ocean Evacuation of 20 km and 30 km zone Rated INES 7 35  It confirmed we always need to be prepared for the worst!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ESTABLISHING RESPONSE CAPABILITY Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Describe the planning basis for establishing response capability. 2.Explain the importance of hazard assessment. 3.Get to know the concept of protection strategy. 4.Distinguish between reference levels and generic criteria. 5.Understand the concept of EALs and OILs. 6.Describe the IAEA emergency planning zones and distances. 36

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ESTABLISHING RESPONSE CAPABILITY /cont. Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 7.Understand the need for introducing emergency planning zones and distances. 8.Get to know concept of operation during a general emergency at NPP. 9.Describe the three levels of responsibilities in emergency response. 10.Describe developing emergency plans and procedures. 37

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Assessment of hazards Establishing emergency response capability to be based on potential hazards and associated consequences − Probabilistic safety analysis (PSA) provides essential information for the types of accident sequences and their probability − Safety analysis report (SAR), the facility licensing document, contains description of the site, as well as detailed description of design basis accidents and design extension conditions − Hazard assessment, a comprehensive assessment for emergency preparedness and response purposes − Where and for whom protective actions may be required − Identifies actions that are most effective in mitigating the consequences and protecting individuals including the timing of actions required − Allows for applying a graded approach − PSA and SAR provide relevant inputs 38

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Off-site emergency zones and distances The hazard assessment of NPPs results in off-site emergency zones and distances where: − Appropriate arrangements are established in advance to ensure effective and prompt response 39 The IAEA nomenclature − Precautionary action zone (PAZ) − Urgent protective action planning zone (UPZ) − Extended planning distance (EPD) − Ingestion and commodities planning distance (ICPD)

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Off-site emergency zones and distances /cont. Roughly circular areas Defined by local landmarks Do not stop at national borders Emergency will not stop at the planning zone boundary! Special attention for personnel of special facilities in PAZ and UPZ 40

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protection strategies General approach to achieving goals of emergency response: − To guide development of emergency arrangements − To guide emergency response operations Justified and optimized set of protective actions Developed on the basis of hazard assessment Justification and optimization not limited to radiation protection alone − To take into account social, economic, environmental and psychological factors − To take into account the impact of each protective action on the economy, society, public welfare etc. 41

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Reference level Represents the level − Above which it is inappropriate to plan to allow exposures to occur and − Below which optimization takes place It is expressed in terms of residual dose − Dose expected to be incurred by an individual in the emergency after protective actions have been fully implemented or in absence of protective actions if decided so (e.g. no any actions taken and protective actions being terminated) Set typically for an effective dose in the range 20–100 mSv acute or annual effective dose from all exposure pathways The actual national value(s) within this band need to be chosen on the basis of prevailing conditions of the emergency situation and on national particularities. 42

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Generic criteria To be used for implementing protective actions either individually or in combination − Used in the process of developing the protection strategy and during its implementation Expressed in terms of − Projected dose, or − Received dose Given for − RBE weighted absorbed dose in an organ or tissue − Equivalent dose in an organ and tissue − Effective dose 43

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Operational criteria An example of generic criterion − When projected dose exceeds 100 mSv in the first 7 days, urgent protective action, e.g. evacuation, is warranted It is impossible to use this criterion (100 mSv in the first seven days) directly to initiate protective actions because: − Projected dose cannot be measured − Nearly impossible to calculate it accurately and timely to allow for effective response Therefore there is a need for criteria based on the generic criteria that can be used directly during an emergency without any need for a further assessment 44  Operational criteria

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response System of Generic and Operational criteria EALs, OILs and observables at the scene make a system of operational criteria for use within the protection strategy, satisfying the generic criteria and ultimately the reference level 45

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency Action Levels (EALs) EALs are predetermined, site-specific, observable criteria Can be observed by control room staff − Instrument readings, status indications, observable events, etc. To early detect initiating condition of an emergency To trigger protective actions when results from field monitoring may not yet be an appropriate indicator for doing so EALs form the basis of emergency classification system (discussed later) 46

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Operational Intervention Levels (OILs) After the release monitoring teams can be deployed to take measurements and samples OILs are used to determine where protective actions are necessary OILs are measured with instruments in the field or in the laboratory: − They are associated with dose rates, ground or surface contamination, radionuclides in environmental, food or water samples etc. OILs are derived from generic criteria. They are calculated and agreed upon in the preparedness as part of the protection strategy. OILs can be revised during emergency to meet the prevailing conditions 47

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Concept of operations T=0 - Emergency at NPP starts T=15 min - Operator declares General Emergency on the basis EALs T=30 min - Operator notifies the off-site and mitigates on-site consequences T=45 min - Off-site authorities order urgent protective actions T=1 h - Public promptly take recommended actions Within hours − Authorities issue press release to general public − IAEA is notified; international assistance is requested if needed Within a day - Controlling of potentially contaminated goods is in place Within a week - Controlling of food, milk and drinking water is in place 48

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Allocation of responsibilities One of the most important parts of emergency preparedness To assign roles and responsibilities − For each action there is responsible organization Should be assigned − Officially, in legislation and − Documented in plans Organizations have to embrace their roles − Internal rules and procedures − Employees or members be aware them and be trained − Designated coordinators 49

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Three levels of responsibilities 50 OPERATOR (facility staff) OFF-SITE (local and national authorities) INTERNATIONAL (IAEA) mitigate the emergency protect people on- site notify and keep off-site authorities informed, including international community provide initial radiological monitoring, etc. implement protective actions off-site provide support to the facility public communication provide medical treatment notify IAEA, etc. Notify and exchange official information among international community, Provide advice and assistance, if requested, Perform assessment of the situation and prognosis of its development, Provide information to general public and media, and Coordinate the inter- agency response.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Developing emergency plans and response capability 51 Emergency response planning Done on paper Implementation Plans National Regional Local Operator Hardware installations Communication setups Training Exercises Etc. Procedures Checklists …

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Hierarchy of radiation emergency plans (example) 52

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency plans, procedures etc. Should provide for all functions necessary to be performed in the emergency response, such as − Initial accident assessment and classification − Notification and activation − Accident mitigation − Public protective actions and other response actions − Protection of emergency workers − Public communication − Non-radiological consequences mitigation − Recovery  All emergency functions are covered in the next chapter 53

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Describe emergency management. 2.Explain the need for emergency classification. 3.Describe the purpose of mitigatory actions in a nuclear emergency. 4.Distinguish between urgent and early protective actions. 5.List urgent protective actions. 6.List early protective actions. 7.Describe mechanism of iodine thyroid blocking. 54

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS /cont. Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 7.Explain the difference between evacuation and relocation. 8.Distinguish between informing the general public and giving instruction to the affected public during emergency. 9.Explain what arrangements for protecting emergency workers encompass. 10.Describe the purpose and importance of field monitoring in emergency response. 11.List three levels of medical response. 55

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS /cont. Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 13.Explain importance of triage. 14.Understand reasons for public concerns. 15.Describe particularities of radioactive waste coming from nuclear emergency. 16.Explain importance of mitigating the non-radiological consequences. 17.Understand the need for adjusting protective actions and implementing recovery operations. 56

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing emergency response operations Operator − Full authority for response actions on-site (mitigating) − Has to be able to transition from normal operations to emergency response without impairing safe and secure operation of the facility itself − Notifies off-site authorities, providing sufficient information Off-site authorities − Command and control over implementation of public protective actions Decision-making process to be − Well coordinated on and off-site − Documented − Well understood by all response organizations 57

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Identifying, notifying and activating There should be clear and effective way for key response organizations to be alerted 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and to activate appropriate personnel and resources Emergency class − The simplest and the shortest message the operator can send off-site to trigger an adequate level of emergency response − Timing requirement: − Prompt enough to enable response organizations to perform their required functions effectively − Notification has to extend to neighbouring countries in which emergency response actions may be warranted − Countries within emergency planning zones and distances 58

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency classification Operator − To have an easy to use classification procedure − To promptly identify emergency conditions and − To determine and declare the emergency class Upon declaration of an emergency class − The operator and each response organization should take, without further assessment, their assigned actions for that emergency class − These actions are pre-planned and coordinated − The meaning of emergency class needs to be consistent for the operator and the off-site response organizations 59

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response The IAEA recommended classification system 60 ClassDescription General emergency Emergencies at facilities in emergency preparedness category I or II for an emergency that warrants taking precautionary urgent protective actions, urgent protective actions and other response actions on the site and off the site. Site area emergency Emergencies at facilities in category I or II for an emergency that warrants taking protective actions and other response actions on the site and in the vicinity of the site. Facility emergency Emergencies at facilities in category I, II or III for an emergency that warrants taking protective actions and other response actions at the facility and on the site but does not warrant taking protective actions off the site. Alert Emergencies at facilities in category I, II or III for an event that warrants taking actions to assess and to mitigate the consequences at the facility. Other nuclear or radiological emergency Emergencies in category IV that warrant taking protective actions and other response actions at any location.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Taking mitigatory action Mitigatory actions for a nuclear emergency refer to immediate actions to be taken on-site: To prevent severe damage to fuel in the reactor core or spent fuel pool, preventing a large release of radioactive material To reduce the size of any release following damage to fuel To delay a large release of radioactive material following damage to fuel to allow protective actions to be taken 61

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response NPP states during an emergency During a nuclear emergency the plant can fall within following states Design basis accident (DBA) Design extension conditions (DEC) Operator has to be capable to manage DBA and DEC − There have to be procedures and guidelines in place − Emergency operating procedures – EOP − Severe management guidelines – SAMG − Personnel has to be trained to cope with such conditions and mitigate the emergency. 62

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Taking protective actions and other response actions Public protective actions − Urgent protective actions − Referred to as ‘precautionary urgent protective actions’ when taken on the basis of plant conditions, before or shortly after a release − Early protective actions Other response actions (which are not protective) − Provision of public information − Medical care − Psychological support and similar 63

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Urgent vs. Early protective actions Urgent protective actions − To be taken promptly (within hours) to be effective − Require prompt decision-making − Are used over a relatively short period of time (days/weeks) Early protective actions − Can be implemented within days to weeks and they will still be effective − They can be long lasting 64

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Urgent vs. Early protective actions /cont. Major urgent protective actions: Iodine thyroid blocking (ITB) Evacuation Sheltering Major early protective action: Relocation 65 Urgent and early: Closing off the area Preventing inadvertent ingestion Personal decontamination Restrictions on food, milk and drinking water and on commodities Medical treatment

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions implementation Two possibilities: 1. Before or shortly after the release based on EALs (upon declaration of a general emergency) within emergency planning zones and distances 2. After the release based on OILs following performance of monitoring and sampling Effective urgent protective actions - there is an urgency and time constrain! Arrangements must be made in the preparedness stage − To effectively and safely take urgent protective actions − Factors such as availability of transport and effectiveness of shelters and other local characteristics and infrastructure must be considered 66

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Iodine thyroid blocking (ITB) Radioactive iodine can be released in large amounts Radioactive iodine accumulates in the thyroid gland Important health risk − Increase chance of thyroid cancer Young children and foetuses most vulnerable Protection − Take stable (non-radioactive) iodine before exposure to block the thyroid from accumulating radioactive iodine 67 Iodine thyroid blocking

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Implementing ITB Pills to be taken before or shortly after intake, i.e. within 2 hours Clear instructions to be given to population − When, what dosages ITB prevents intake from inhalation or ingestion − Inhalation = short term, geographically limited − Ingestion = long term, affecting larger population ITB not for long term protection ITB is for protecting of thyroid against radioactive iodine ONLY! − Other protective actions are warranted in parallel (evacuation, food, drink restrictions) 68

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparing for ITB For severe accidents − ITB more than few 100 km from the accident may be warranted − Enough time to distribute pills that far and to effectively implement Pre-distribution necessary in the vicinity of the facility (i.e. within PAZ and UPZ) in order ITB to be effectively implemented − To be stored in homes, schools, workplaces, hospitals and other special facilities ITB mechanism implementation to be well explained to the public at the preparedness stage − To support effective implementation of ITB − To prevent unwarranted actions taken by the public − To reduce fear 69

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Evacuation Prompt evacuation (taken before or shortly after a release) most effective public protective action − If carried out safely − Prevents exposure from all pathways Evacuations are common, they occur quite frequently in conventional emergencies 70

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Evacuation after release may still be effective It protects against ground shine (important source of exposure) Evacuation at speeds greater than walking speed (~ 5 km/h), even during release, is more effective than sheltering If evacuating during or after a release  Monitor evacuees for contamination and as necessary decontaminate Challenges − Large number of people and vehicles to monitor /decontaminate − Effective traffic control plans − Equipment capabilities − Preventing bottlenecks during evacuation If evacuation is not possible right away  shelter until safe evacuation + ITB 71

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Sheltering People to stay indoors with windows and doors closed and ventilation turned off − Reducing exposure mainly from radioactive plume (inhalation and cloud shine pathways) and from ground contamination Sheltering in place − People to go inside, shut the windows and doors Sheltering in large buildings − Called substantial shelter, away from closed windows with outside ventilation shut off 72

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Sheltering – Simple to implement, but … TIME - People cannot be kept inside for longer periods − Sheltering is a short term measure − Few days at most − Only if evacuation is not possible SUPPLIES - People do not keep extensive supplies of food − If more than a day, authorities need to take care of food, water, sanitation, power, medical support, etc. − Vital to keep people informed and to respond to their concerns EFFECTIVENESS − Large building sheltering can prevent lethal doses − Gradual air exchange between inside and outside − To be combined with ITB 73

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Relocation Relocation means removal of people to avoid longer term exposure Based on results from monitoring using OILs − Relocation due to hotspots − Relocation due to essential food and water being too much contaminated to be allowed for consumption with no replacement Relocation is non-urgent − A week to a month to be implemented and still to be effective − Time is available to address personal needs − Providing for household pets − Gathering important possessions − Securing property − Providing for farm animals − Providing for evacuees’ needs as well 74

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Closing off an area Areas where evacuation and relocation were implemented need to be closed for the public! Authorities must have complete control over closed areas Closing off to be publicly announced Closed areas to be clearly and physically marked (e.g. roadblocks) Control points to be set up − Secure exiting and entering the closed off area including entry point for emergency services − Contamination control to be performed when exiting 75

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Prevention of inadvertent ingestion Deposited radioactive material can be a significant source of exposure Activities leading to an inadvertent ingestion: Eating, drinking and smoking with contaminated hands Children playing on the ground Working in the garden, sweeping the yard Other outdoor activities either for work or recreation Following actions can prevent and/or reduce inadvertent ingestion: Avoid unnecessary outdoor activities Keep your hands away from your mouth (do not smoke, eat and drink) Decontaminate as soon as possible if contamination is suspected (wash hands and face, shower, change clothes) 76

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Personal decontamination People can get contaminated if they don’t leave potentially affected areas before release Radioactive material deposits on clothes and skin Initial decontamination: 77 − To remove outer clothes and wash hands and face or shower − Handling of clothes properly not to contaminate the premises − Discarding in well-marked plastic bags − Showering with mild soap, no harsh scrubbing

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Restrictions on food, milk and drinking water and on other commodities Protection against ingestion of contaminated food, milk and drinking water − Restrictions applied to: − The source - the food chain and water supply system − Consumption - use and distribution of food, milk and drinking water − Rainwater and local produce concern within hours of a release − Milk within about two days, but urgent decisions are essential to prevent contamination of milk from grazing animals Protection against the use of contaminated non-food commodities Controls in place have to be communicated for reassuring the public − Certification can be an option 78

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Instructions and warnings to affected population Two aspects to be considered: − Informing public periodically at the preparedness stage − Giving warnings and instructions of actions to take during an emergency 79

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Informing public periodically at preparedness stage Scope of the information to be provided: − The nature of hazard − How people will be warned or notified − On actions to be taken − Emergency arrangements in place Disseminated as − Brochures − Leaflets − Calendars − Television or radio information programs Effectiveness of public information arrangements is subject to periodic assessment 80

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Warning and giving instructions during an emergency Affected public must be warned promptly − Provide them instructions on protective actions to take Warning options may include: − Fixed sirens − Centrally activated radios within homes − Loudspeakers operated from police or fire fighting vehicles − Door-to-door notification Even if no actions required, public still needs to be informed: − To reduce their concern − To prevent them taking unwarranted actions (note that public communication in general is addressed separately) 81

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protecting emergency workers Personnel from the facility − Employees who are directly employed or through a contractor Response organizations staff, such as fire fighters, police officers, medical personnel, drivers and crews of evacuation vehicles They are all emergency workers and they need to be protected adequately 82

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response The first step – identify and designate emergency workers at the preparedness stage − Will help ensuring they are adequately protected when needed (commensurate with their duties) Possibility some emergency workers may not have been seen as such earlier but may be required during an actual emergency − Register and integrate them within the response organization − Identify responsible organization for their protection Participation of emergency workers in emergency drills and exercises needs to be encouraged on regular basis 83 Protecting emergency workers /cont.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response High doses on a voluntarily basis Most response actions to be carried out within dose limits for occupational exposure Critical actions (life saving, prevention of development of catastrophic conditions, averting large collective doses) may lead to incurring higher doses (subject to pre-set guidance values) − They are to be taken on a voluntarily basis − Subject to informed consent To keep the doses of emergency workers as low as reasonable achievable − Managing and controlling the doses − Records must be kept 84

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Work in contaminated areas Must be planned in advance Besides external gamma radiation and inhalation, skin contamination major source of dose on-site − Inhalation and skin contamination can be prevented implementing adequate protective actions (i.e. using appropriate personal protective equipment) 85

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Helpers in an emergency Members of the public who willingly and voluntarily help in response − They are aware they may be exposed to radiation Regularly seen during natural disasters but it cannot be excluded for them to volunteer to help in nuclear emergency too Register and integrate them within the response organization Identify responsible organization for their protection 86

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Facility status and emergency radiation monitoring Starts with the emergency classification Detailed plant status − By using plant's emergency procedures and accident management procedures Robust instrumentation that withstands, for example: − High radiation − Humidity − High temperature − Extended measuring range 87

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions based emergency radiation monitoring Monitoring data − Basis for additional protective actions (based on OILs) − Assess actions taken, adjust them − Assess hazards Measurements − Ambient dose rate and dose − Airborne radionuclide concentration − Environmental deposition − Food, water, and environmental contamination − Individual dose − Object-surface contamination measurements. − Measurements of airborne aerosols and gases to provide warning of unknown releases 88

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency radiation monitoring Monitoring purpose: − To assess hazards − To assess actions taken and to identify a need to adjust them − To identify further actions to be taken Decisions for protective actions based on OILs Measurements may include: − Ambient dose rate and dose − Airborne radionuclide concentration − Environmental deposition − Food, water, and environmental contamination − Individual dose − Surface contamination measurements 89

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing medical response Medical response is necessary element of response Based on methods used for handling other types of accidents − Taking into account − Health effects of radiation − Contamination issues Medical response need to consider: − Needs on-site: medical care for workers − Needs off-site: medical care for workers and the affected population 90

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Three levels of medical response 1. First aid on spot 2. Initial medical examination, treatment in a general hospital 3. Complete examination, treatment in a specialized medical centre According to Degree of complexity Necessary resources for assistance Severity of consequences 91

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Management of patients In case of high doses (deterministic effects)  Specialized medical hospital for complete medical examination, treatments, and assessment of the dose In case of large number of exposed persons  Triage of persons TRIAGE = To sort patients into classes on the basis of their condition to expedite clinical care and maximize use of available medical services Contaminated patients may require decontamination − But decontamination should not precede the provision of critical medical care! 92

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dealing with contaminated patients Conventional protection is enough when handling contaminated patients Care needs to be given not to spread contamination − e.g. use plastic cover in the vehicle in which the patient is transported Medical staff may be required to wear personal protective clothing (PPE) such as overalls, masks, plastic gloves, overshoes In some cases, medical staff may need: − To wear personal dosimeters − To be monitored for contamination 93

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Public communications during an emergency Public communication during an emergency is one of the important activities Public is very sensitive about any nuclear − All nuclear emergencies are perceived as dangerous  immense amount of media, public and political attention Authorities to provide official information as soon as possible − Even though not much information may be known at the time 94

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Public concerns During emergencies public is always concerned − Nuclear emergencies raise even greater concerns then conventional ones, ionizing radiation is almost completely unknown to general public − Messages from the authorities may be confusing and too complicated (e.g. containing technical data and information) − There are "experts" appearing in the media with their own explanations and detailed technical information There will be enquires from: − Individuals − Media − Non governmental organizations and other interested parties 95

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Unwarranted actions by the public Actions not justified by the radiation hazard and not warranted − May do more harm than good! − Can occur even if there is no release − People take such actions on their own in belief they protect themselves and others Examples of such unwarranted actions include: − Shadow evacuations − Unsubstantiated abortions − Not accepting products, officially cleared, from affected areas − Unwarranted closing school, embassies and other public buildings − Unwarranted medical examinations, etc. 96

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing radioactive waste Radioactive waste is normal side product − Ranges from spent nuclear fuel of NPPs (high level waste) to contaminated personal protective equipment (low level waste) Major recovery and decontamination activities may be warranted in a nuclear emergency resulting in a large volumes of radioactive waste being produced − Can easily overwhelm national capabilities for its management Adequate preparedness to address waste management following the emergency is necessary 97

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Mitigating non-radiological consequences Psychosocial, economic and other non-radiological consequences often outweigh radiological health effects Difficult to mitigate - primary related to perceived risk Emergency plans should − Recognize their significance and − Make provisions to reduce detrimental effects Measures to be considered − Informing affected population accurately and promptly − Accident’s progression − Risks involved − Protective actions being taken − Keeping sheltered, evacuated, or relocated people informed of the expected time to return to normal 98

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Terminating the emergency Emergency stops, no on-going uncontrolled releases and no further ones are expected, facility is under control  Decision makers need to consider when and under what conditions to terminate the emergency situation and to:  Transition to long term recovery operations (i.e. existing exposure situation or  Return to planned exposure situation It may be impossible to prepare a detailed plan in advance for recovery − An outline of a plan or a strategy to be prepared − Identifies the differences in authority, management and coordination between the emergency and recovery responsibilities 99

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response INFRASTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Explain importance of assigning authorities, roles and responsibilities. 2.Understands staffing of response organizations. 3.Describe coordination of emergency response. 4.Describe the system of plans and procedures. 5.Describe facilities and equipment. 6.Explain the importance of training and exercises. 7.Explain what quality management in preparedness is in practice. 100

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response INFRASTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Functional elements vs. Infrastructural elements 101 What functions need to be performed What infrastructure needs to be put in place in support to perform those functions Plans Procedures Facilities Equipment Training Exercises Quality management

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Authority Authorities, roles and responsibilities should be − Allocated − Documented in national and local plans Conflicting roles and responsibilities need to be resolved Workable concept of operations ASAP Authority and responsibilities assigned within a clearly defined and unified command and control system 102

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Organization The same basic response organization for all emergencies − Rapid integration, co-ordination and expansion of the response − Covering nuclear and conventional emergencies (‘all-hazards’ approach) Emergency command and control system (ECS) with five components: − Command, Planning, Operation, Logistics, Finance/administration Small-scale emergencies  Only emergency commander may perform all components Large-scale emergencies  Each component runs separately Command transfer:  operator /first responders  Local official  National official 103

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Coordination of emergency response EPR coordination mechanisms must be − Established for any type of emergency − Effective and practical − Formalized − Within organization, between individuals and departments − At each level − Between organizations and jurisdictional levels. Especially for large-scale operations − With extensive resources required Coordination agreements − Between facility and off-site authorities − Notification protocols − Communication mechanisms − Off-site assistance...

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Plans and procedures All response organizations to have plans and procedures − Radiation emergency response is not daily work − People don’t know by heart exactly what has to be done − Effective system of procedures with outlines, checklists and reminders Challenge is large number of organizations − Need for coordination of plans and − Concept of operations Updating is important − Ensuring changes reflect in all documents − Ensuring all organizations work from the last version − Operational procedures revised annually − National plans on a few years cycle (e.g. after bigger national exercises) − Middle plans fall somewhere in between − Emergency preparedness committees are needed to ensure these

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency response facilities and locations Emergency teams, decision making bodies, support teams, etc., need facilities or locations to be stationed with communication, equipment, supplies: − Simple regular offices turned into emergency centres − Dedicated and equipped emergency centres Facilities located within potentially contaminated zone − Premises for emergency personnel to be protected from external radiation and airborne contamination − Protection against other external hazards may be needed Emergency locations, e.g. field monitoring base, medical triage base Reception centre for evacuees registration and contamination management

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency response facilities for NPPs Primary: Control room Technical Support Centre (TSC) Emergency Operations Facility (EOF) Operations Support Centre (OSC) Others include: public information centre, reception centre for evacuees, emergency centres, etc.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency tools, equipment and supplies 108 All response organizations should maintain suitable tools, equipment and supplies Lists may vary considerably and may include: − Regular office equipment and supplies (computers, printers, scanners), − Special applications for dose calculations, source term estimation … − Internal network and intranet, − GIS applications to map emergency data, − Monitoring equipment (measurement instruments, stations, vehicle kits, − Decontamination equipment, − Personal protective equipment, − Supplies for evacuees (e.g. water, food, beds and blankets), − Emergency vehicles, − Communication equipment (phones, radios, faxes)

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Communications A number of organizations involved  Good communication systems are needed − Dedicated − Reliable − Robust − Simple to use − With redundant back-ups and regular tests Common communication systems fail due to overloads − Both landlines and cellular systems Provide key players robust and reliable communication − Protected or direct lines − Satellite telephones have limitations with sensitivity − Microwave links are effective alternative where applicable − All main communication systems to be tested and contact numbers updated periodically

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Training, drills and exercises Essential part of effective emergency preparedness program Training and exercises for facility to be held several times a year Substantial financial and human resources for off-site organizations Training and exercise program for off-site organizations to take into account − The role of each − Its critical needs for responding − Value of the training and exercises e.g. police forces may only need specific radiological training Systematic approach to training (SAT) is needed 110

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Quality management programme Response organizations to establish comprehensive quality management program − Availability and reliability of all supplies, equipment, communication systems and facilities − Inventories, resupply, tests and calibrations − Maintenance, review and updating of emergency plans, procedures and other arrangements − Incorporation of lessons learned from research, operating experience and emergency drills and exercises Sufficient resources be available to regularly test all the above Testing to be carried out systematically with a continuous program Lessons learned to be fed back to the preparedness process Internal and external audits 111

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response THE ROLE OF IAEA IN A NUCLEAR OR RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCY Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Describe the role of the IAEA related to emergency preparedness and response. 2.Describe the IAEA/IEC main functions. 3.Explain the obligations under the Early Notification and Assistance Conventions. 4.Explain the mechanism of notification under the Early Notification Convention. 5.List relevant IAEA safety standards on emergency preparedness and response. 112

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response THE ROLE OF IAEA in EPR Statutory responsibilities complemented with functions assigned under: − Early Notification and Assistance Conventions − IAEA Safety Standards in EPR − IAEA Policy-making organs’ decisions 113

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Roles of IAEA in emergency response Notification and official exchange of information Provision of advice and assistance Provision of assessment and prognosis Provision of public information Coordination of inter-agency response 114

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Roles of IAEA in emergency preparedness Developing EPR related safety standards, technical guidance and practical tools and providing for their implementation Assisting MS in establishing, enhancing their EPR and capacity building Providing peer review services, e.g. EPREV Maintaining IAEA’s in-house and inter-agency preparedness 115

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Incident and Emergency Centre (IEC) Within Department of Nuclear Safety and Security, IAEA Reporting directly to Deputy Director General Custodian of IAEA‘s Incident and Emergency System (IES) Global focal point for EPR World‘s centre for coordination of provision of international assistance 116

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Early Notification Convention State Parties to notify and provide information regarding emergencies with trans-boundary consequences which are of radiological safety significance for other States − Directly or through the IAEA State Parties to assign national warning point and competent authorities for notification and information exchange purposes IAEA maintains a list of these contact points and uses diverse means to promptly notify other states and international organizations and for official information exchange − USIE (Unified System for Incidents and Emergencies) being one 117

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Assistance Convention States to request for international assistance, in writing − Facsimile, , USIE Upon receiving the request, IEC − Conducts initial assessment − Contacts other MS for offering requested assistance − Co-ordinates the provision of assistance Response Assistance Network (RANET) − Global network to facilitate assistance provision timely and effectively 118

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response IAEA Safety Standards in EPR Hierarchy of the IAEA standards Safety Fundamentals − Objectives, concepts, principles - basis for requirements Safety Requirements − Requirements on what is to be done to ensure protection of people and environment Safety Guides − Recommendations and guidance on how to meet requirements 119

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response IAEA Safety Standards in EPR /cont. GSR- Part 7 − Establishes requirements for adequate level of EPR for all facilities and activities − Uses ‘shall’ statements − Sets common goal, concepts and approaches in EPR GS-G-2.1 − To assist Member States in implementation of selected safety requirements in EPR GSG-2 − Provides the criteria for implementing protective actions and other response 120

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR Series publications Based on EPR safety standards To assist the application of IAEA Safety Standards in EPR More operational documents − Describe good practices − Give practical solutions, detailed methods − Informational in nature − Include numerous examples and templates of actual documents 121

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Get the latest information on the IAEA website The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission.