Lists of Items Primacy Effect: the tendency to remember items from the beginning of a list Recency Effect: the tendency to remember items from the end of a list Serial Position Effect: the tendency to remember items from the beginning and end of a list better than items from the middle Semantic Distinctiveness (von Restorff Effect): increased success with recall of an item because of its uniqueness Chunking: linking of two or more items together to aid recall( ) (Re)constructive Memory: the process of piecing together memories

Memory Memory: cognitive systems for storing and retrieving information. Encoding: the process through which information is converted into a form that can be entered into memory Storage: the process through which information is retained in memory Retrieval: the process through which information stored in memory is located

Atkinson & Shriffrin Model of Memory 1.Sensory Memory: the initial, temporary recording of sensory information - eye (iconic) lasts about.25 seconds - ear (echoic) lasts about 3 seconds > Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation AAttention is needed to transfer information to working memory

2. Short-Term (Working) Memory: brief storage of information currently being used - Capacity is 7+/- 2 items - Duration is about 18 seconds > Maintenance Rehearsal: mental or verbal repetition of information allows it to remain in S-T indefinitely Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention

If information in S-T is encoded, then it proceeds to Long-Term Memory: organizes and stores information - Capacity is infinite - Duration is unlimited Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) Can report it verbally Implicit (procedural) Cannot readily express verbally Facts-general knowledge (“Semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“Episodic memory”) Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects

Levels of Processing Theory Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart proposed three levels for encoding incoming information. - Structural: information is stored based on what it looks like - Phonemic: information is stored based on what it sounds like - Semantic: information is stored based on what it means > Deeper levels of processing results in longer-lasting memory codes. (Semantic = deepest)

Spaced Practice: short study sessions spread out over an extended period of time lead to better learning than does massed practice (one long learning or cramming session).

Retrieval Retrieval: bringing information from L-T to S-T memory so that it can be used, examined, or modified Retrieval cues: can be any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieval - Two basic methods of retrieval are: > Recall: few or no cues (essay question) > Recognition: many or strong cues (Multiple-choice question)

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Jessie Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Awesome Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Lazy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Shorty Nifty Happy Wheezy Danny Doc Stubby Recall vs. Recognition (Seven Dwarves)

Encoding Specificity Principle: retrieval cues are more efficient when they are coded when the information in learned. - Retrieval success most likely if context at time of retrieval approximates that of encoding > State Dependent Memory: what is learned in one psychological or physical state (happy, hungry, etc.) can more easily be remembered when in the same state. > Locus Dependent Memory: what is learned in one location can more easily be remembered when in the same location. (take make-up test in usual classroom) [déjà vu - cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience]

Retrieval Cues  After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee- Collier, 1989).

Mnemonics: techniques for improving memory that use organizational devices 1. Verbal (acronym): use the first letters of the words to be remembered to make a new word HOMES 2. Visual (method of loci): link places within the room to words to be remembered Sensory, S-T, & L-T 3. Peg Word: memorize a jingle: “one is a bun, two is a shoe…” and link these pegs to words to be remembered

Forgetting EEncoding Failure: i nformation never made it from S-T to L-T memory. External events Sensory memory Short- term memory Long- term memory Attention Encoding failure leads to forgetting

RRetrieval Failure: not enough retrieval cues are available to prompt remembering External events Attention Encoding Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory

Interference Theory: learning some items may get in the way of retrieval of other information. - Proactive Interference: old information in L-T memory interferes with remembering new info - Retroactive Interference: new memories in L-T memory interfere with remembering old info

Consolidation Failure: memories new to long- term memory take time to consolidate or to be firmly implanted. - Any disruption in the consolidation process can prevent a permanent memory from forming (seizures, concussion, & loss of consciousness) > Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events occurring prior to the brain injury > Anterograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events occurring after brain injury (Clive Wearing)

Motivated Forgetting: highly disturbing, anxiety-producing memories are no longer consciously available Decay Theory: if information in L-T memory is not used, it gradually fades over time until completely lost

The Forgetting Curve Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables Nonsense syllables are three letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)

TThe forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Retention drops, then levels off ½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course 100% Percentage of original vocabulary retained

Which one is the real penny?

Memory Construction & Distortion We fill in gaps in our recollections, because we want to understand fully what happened. Eyewitness Testimony – Is it accurate? - distracted - surprised - partial view - scared - confused - schemas - source monitoring (saw at scene or in mug shots) - leading questions (“How tall was he?”) - reality monitoring (actual event or our thoughts)

Misinformation Effect (Elizabeth Loftus): participants’ recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent information.

Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

Loftus’ Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed collided bumped hit contacted 41 m.p.h. 39 m.p.h. 38 m.p.h. 34 m.p.h. 32 m.p.h.

One week later subjects were asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass in the accident (there was none). - “hit”14% replied yes - “smashed”32% replied yes

Imagination Inflation: asking people to imagine experiencing a childhood event (one that they had previously indicated they had not experienced) can significantly increase belief that they have actually had a similar experience. Advertising Distortion: subjects were exposed to a nostalgic ad for Disney World featuring Bugs Bunny - many remembered shaking hands with him

How to Rob a Bank Successfully Humans are poor at face recognition - most fail at identifying previously seen head shots in a second stack of photos M & F – change hairstyle = 25% decrease Males – add a beard = 25% decrease Males – beard + hairstyle = 52% decrease Females – change hair color = 52% decrease M & F – only seen in profile = 61% decrease

Th era inhe lpsf arm ersgr owcro ps. The rain helps farmers grow crops.

Improve Your Memory SStudy repeatedly to boost recall SSpend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material MMake material personally meaningful UUse mnemonic devices aassociate with peg words--something already stored LLink to objects around you aacronyms