Quantitative Data Qualitative Data Data= numbers Operational definition of research & “closed” data in the form of numbers (generally not open to interpretation Analysis of data relatively easy- statistical tests Data from many participants (sampling) & inferential statistics- generalisation of findings to populations Data= text/pictures (transcripts, field notes & sometimes pictures) Naturally occurring & rich data (open ended, i.e. Open for interpretation) Analysis of data often difficult & time consuming: no single approach to data analysis Few participants (non-probability sampling)- difficult to generalise

 Has been argued that qualitative research is not “scientific” because not built on principles of method of natural sciences  However, qualitative researchers would argue that “science” in a broad sense as a systematic, rigorous task that must be carried out properly to produce trustworthy and reliable knowledge.

 Purpose of qualitative research is to understand the world as the participant sees it.  Focus is on design and procedures that make it possible to study behaviour in everyday situations and to obtain rich data

 Provides rich data- in depth descriptions of individual experiences  Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues such as coping with illness, sexuality, homelessness, or living in a violent relationship  Researcher and participants often interacting for a longer period of time- greater understanding?  Explain phenomena- goes beyond mere observation and asks “why?”  Identify and evaluate factors that contribute to solving real life problems  People studied in own environment, which increases ecological validity

 Can be time consuming as research conducted over longer period of time & generate a huge amount of data  Data analysis can be difficult because of large amount of data & no clear strategy for analysis  Interpretation of data may be subjective but reflexivity and credibility checks can reduce bias  Generalisation issues as fewer participants often used  Ethical considerations  Non-probability sampling used  Participant expectations & researcher bias may affect results- reflexivity and credibility can reduce these effects

What is generalisation?  Scientists normally want findings to apply to people other than those who participate in study  Generalising findings from a study means that the result are relevant outside the context of study itself

 Generalisation of results from qualitative research is often not possible because: ◦ Most studies have few participants ◦ Sampling is based on selection criteria and not representativeness (e.g. purposive, snowball or volunteer sampling) ◦ Goal of data analysis is to understand subjective experience of participants in the study

 Overall same ethical issues as quantitative researchCanDoCan’tDoWithParticipants

Confidentiality Deception Consent Debrief Withdrawal Protection However, there are also special ethical considerations to be made due to the very nature of the qualitative research often involves long-term/close personal contact with participant

 Generally the same as quantitative research but: ◦ Small number of participants may result in difficulties with anonymity ◦ Research topics often sensitive (e.g. Domestic violence, health issues) and require particular consideration for participants in study ◦ Often long term research process with close personal contact between researcher and participants. Participants may reveal very personal information and it can be difficult to maintain researcher objectivity at times

 Research may result in obtaining sensitive information such as participants’ criminal activity. Researcher needs to consider this is advance and decide whether they will inform the authorities and participants should be informed about this before they participate  Informed consent cannot always be obtained (e.g. Covert participant observation)  Some research may involve danger to researcher (e.g. Covert participant observations in prisons, street gangs)

Confidentiality  Can be an issue with case studies and research designs with only a few participants, because there’s a risk that participants may be identifiable  Researcher may have to change minor details to protect anonymity  When research completed transcripts/interview videos etc need to be destroyed

Consent  In case studies where covert observation used, participants are unaware they’re being studied therefore have not given consent

Protection  Qualitative research often used to study sensitive issues e.g. Sexual abuse, domestic violence  Due to nature of method (e.g. In-depth interviews) participants may disclose very private information that they have never shared with anyone before  Participant may regret such revelations and feel upset about the interview afterwards  Researchers must ensure that participants have a clear understanding of research beforehand and avoid irrelevant details that may be sensitive.

 According to Silverman qualitative researchers should ask: ◦ Why are they doing the study? ◦ Can the findings can be of value to the common good? ◦ Will it help to protect the people in the study? ◦ What are their own moral, political or personal interests in the study? DO THE ENDS JUSTIFY THE MEANS?

Ethical IssueHow to deal with it Informed consent o Participant must understand study & agree to participate o Participants should understand information given before, during & after study including results o An ethics committee must give permission if informed consent cannot be obtained o In covert observation, researcher to consider whether its justified Protect participants from harm o Consider whether could harm participants in any way o Questions should be clear & direct if topic is sensitive o Monitor whether participants show signs of comfort or distress during research o Protect participants from consequences of participation (e.g. Research on domestic violence) o Follow up in research to ensure participants’ well-being

Ethical IssueHow to deal with it Anonymity & Confidentiality o Full anonymity is the rule, in cases where not possible, participants should be fully informed o Research material (e.g. Videotaped interview) should be destroyed & transcripts anonymised Potential exploitations of participants o Researcher should consult other researchers when researching socially or psychologically vulnerable people who are not able to protect themselves o Researcher must seriously consider whether findings based on deception & covert observation on sensitive issues can be justified

Ethical issues mentioned here are general. In exam you will be given an extract from a specific study. You need to discuss ethics that are relevant to this specific study and provide clear examples using source material.

 Case study can be defined as an in-depth investigation of human experience called ‘a case’  Aim of case study is to describe, understand and often explain a psychological or social phenomenon from perspective of participants  Case study particularly useful to investigate socially sensitive topics such as poverty, health issues, and domestic violence

 Highly descriptive. The data collected describe psychological processes and events, and the contexts in which they occurred. Because most case studies occur over a significant period of time, a high level of detail is provided.  May include a range of methods: observation, interviews, psychometric tests etc  Narrowly focused. Typically a case study offers a description of only a single individual or group. For example, it may be a case study of a single firm or school. In addition, often the case study focuses on a limited aspect of a person or organization, such as their psychopathological symptoms or stress in the workplace.  Combine objective and subjective data. All data are regarded as valid data for analysis, and as a basis for inferences within the case study.  Process oriented, not outcome oriented. The case study method enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes, which occur over time. In contrast to the experimental method focuses primarily on outcome. The case study often takes a longitudinal approach to how processes develop over time - for example, the development of language in children.

StrengthsLimitations Well suited to investigate sensitive and complex issues in areas that could not be studied otherwise (i.e. in a lab setting) May give new insight into phenomena as data is so rich Useful for studying group processes within a social group Results from a case study may generate entirely new knowledge, which challenges preconceived notions and contradicts established theory Researcher bias could potentially be a problem since researcher’s own beliefs and ideas could influence data collection. Generalisation of findings from a single case study or a small number of cases is not always possible Risk of participant or researcher bias since they interact with each other for a long period of time Replication is not possible Heavily dependent on self reported data