1 Textbook: Electronic Properties of Materials, Rolf E. Hummel, 4 th. Ed. Ref.:Electrons in Solids- An Introductory Survey, R. H. Bube, 3 rd Ed.

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Structure of Materials Ref.

4 Chapter 1:Introduction The understanding of the behavior of electrons in solids is one of the key elements to understand the properties of materials such as electrical, optical, magnetic, and thermal properties. Approaches for the understanding of the electronic properties of materials: (a)Continuum Theory – phenomenological description of the experimental observation (considered only macroscopic properties and interrelated exp. data) ex. Ohm’s law, Maxwell equation, Newton’s law, Hagen-Rubens equation etc. (b) Classical Electron Theory – introducing atomistic principles into the description of matter ex. Drude equation (free electron in metals drift as a response to an external force and interact with certain lattice atoms) (c) Quantum Theory – explain the interaction of electrons with solids which could not explain by the classical Newtonian mechanics impetusresponse

5 Chapter 2: Wave- Particle Duality What is an electron? – we experience merely the actions of electrons, e.g., television screen (particle-like) or in an electron microscope (wave-like), showing particle-like and wave-like behavior of electrons, respectively. (Light)-- Similar discussion to discuss the property of light. We perceive light intuitively as a wave moving with a velocity of c – electromagnatic wave, as the color of light is related to its waverlength  or to its frequency  -Diffraction, interference, dispersion We also know that the light also has a particle nature. -Photoelectric effect (1905, Einstein) Newton’s Law:Light: Planck constant: h=6.626 x J sec =4.136 x eV sec

6 Wave- Particle Duality of Electron For electron: In 1897, particle like property of electrons was discovered by J.J. Thompson at the Cavendish Lab. Charge: 1.6X C, Mass: ~1/2000 of the mass of hydrogen atom In 1924 de Broglie postulated that the electrons should also possess wave-particle duality and suggested the wave-nature of electrons. (p  h) From the equations of the light, such as: In 1926, Schrodinger provide a mathmatical Form of this idea. – Schrodinger equation

7 Light Electron 1887 Hertz: photoelectric effect 1905 Einstein: PE effect interpretation 1897 J.J. Thompson Proposed particle-like nature of electron m0 ~ 1/2000 H e = 1.6 x C 1910 E. Rutherford Proposed atomic structure Tiny solar system Electrons moving around positive charge center 1924 De Brogile Proposed the idea that wave-like duality of electrons p=h 1926 Schrodinger develops a mathmatical form 1927 Davisson and Germer Discover electron diffraction 1928 G.P. Thompson Discover electron diffraction Wave- Particle Duality of Electron

8 What is a wave? A wave is a “disturbance” which is periodic in position and time. Waves are characterized by a velocity, v, a frequency,, and a wavelength,, which are interrelated by, Simplest waveform is mathematically expressed by a sine (or a cosine) function – “harmonic wave”. The wave-particle duality may be better understood by realizing that the electron can be represented by a combination of several wave trains having slightly different frequencies, for example,  and  and different wave numbers, k and k+  k.

9 Two extreme cases:  and  k=0, “infinitely long” wave packet – monochromatic wave  and  k assumed to be very large – short wave packet if a large number of different waves are combined, having frequencies  n   where n= 1, 2, 3,…), then the string of wave packets reduces to one wave packet only. The electron is then represented as a particle.

10 Different velocities: (1)The velocity of “matter wave” is called the wave velocity or “phase velocity”. - stream of particles of equal velocity whose frequency, wavelength, momentum, or energy can be exactly determined. - the location of particles, however, is undetermined. - the phase velocity varies for different wavelength. (2) Particle can be understood as a “wave packet” where, the velocity of a particle is called “group velocity”, vg. - the velocity of a “modulated amplitude” is expressed as - the location x of a particle is known precisely, whereas the frequency is not. - the better the location,  x, of a particle can be determined, the wider is the frequency range,  - one form of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

11 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Wave function contains the variables of x, and t (space and time) and contains the information of momentum and energy (k and  ) and each terms are bounded by uncertainty principle.

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Derivation of Schrodinger Equation: Matter wave equation is expressed as a harmonic wave form: Energy(E)Momentum(p) Particle: mv Wave: Since, E= (time-dependent Schrodinger equation)

Derivation of Schrodinger Equation: At stationary state – time independent state We are asking what energy states are allowed. We can write, Then, (time-independent Schrodinger equation) Solution: 1.Choose desired potential energy V(x, y, z) 2.Get the general solution of  x, y, z) 3.Retain only mathematically well behaved terms single valued not=0 continuous and continuous derivatives finite 4.Apply boundary condition - E n

16 (a) First Case: V=0, Free Electrons Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation We consider electrons which propagate freely with no potential barrier(V), namely, in a potential-free space in the positive x-direction. Traveling in the x direction Traveling in the -x direction only consider the wave traveling in positive direction

17 When we concern about wave traveling in the x-direction Because there are no boundary conditions, we can obtain an energy continuum Energy continuum of a free (Wave vector) k-vector describes the wave properties of an electron, just as one describes in classical mechanics the particle property of an electron with the momentum

18 The potential barriers do not allow the electron to escape from this potential well. (In side of potential well V=0) One-dimensional potential well. Boundary condition General Solution: (b) Second Case: Electron in a potential well (Bound electron)

19 (Euler Equation) This result is called “Energy Quantization”

20 Normalization Now, since n E n 1 2 3

21 For electron in a box (3-D) Integer ) “Degenerate States”: have the same energy but different quantum numbers The smallest allowed energy is when n x =n y =n z =1 For the next higher energy, (n x, n y, n z ) = (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1) For hydrogen model The potential,V, is taken as the Coulombic potential, and solve Schrodinger equation by setting the polar coordinates. Wave function is designated by four quantum numbers.

22 (Ⅰ)(Ⅰ) (Ⅱ)(Ⅱ) (Ⅰ)(Ⅰ) (Ⅱ)(Ⅱ) (C) Third Case: Finite Potential Barrier (Tunnel Effect)

23 (1) The function and are continuous at x=0. As a consquence, at x=0. (2) The slopes of the wave functions in Regions I and II are continuous at x=0, i.e. Thus, (damped wave which propagate into the barrier)

24 (D) Simple Step Potential: General Case of (C) x V0V0 0d IIIIII (a) Large d(∞), E>V 0

25 (D) Simple Step Potential: General Case of (C) x V0V0 0d IIIIII (a) Large d(∞), E<V 0

26 (D) Simple Step Potential: General Case of (C) x V0V0 0d IIIIII (a) Small d, E>V 0

27 (D) Simple Step Potential: General Case of (C) x V0V0 0d IIIIII (a) Small d, E<V 0

Electron in a Periodic Field of a Crystal (The Solid State) The goal of this section is to study the behavior of an electron in a crystal-periodic potential. (Ⅰ)(Ⅰ) (Ⅱ)(Ⅱ) (Bloch function) Kronig-Penney Model

29 Bloch Function: 규칙적으로 potential 이 반복되는 경우의 Schrodinger 방정식을 풀 때 파동함 수는 Bloch 정리에 의하여 기술될 수 있다. 즉, schrodinger 방정식 에서 포텐셜이, V(x) = V(x+a) 를 만족하는 경우, 파동함수는 다음과 같이 놓을 수 있다.

30 (Ⅰ)(Ⅰ) (Ⅱ)(Ⅱ) (Ⅰ)(Ⅰ) Put it to equation (I), (II) then (Ⅱ)(Ⅱ) Boundary condition

31 (1) At x=0 (2) For periodicity, Eq I = Eq II (at x=0,x=a+b) or more simply Eq I (x=a) = Eq II (x=-b) From this 4 equations we can determine unknowns A,B,C,D and the conditions which tells us where solutions to the Schrödinger equations exist. Determinant of A, B, C, and D should vanish.

32 The potential barrier will be of a kind that b is very small and V 0 is very large. It is further assumed that the product bV 0 remains finite. If V 0 is very large, then E is considered to be small and can be neglected, And since b ~ 0,  b=0 Neglect  2 compared to  2 and b compared to a,

33 Because of are allowed at specific region of It means that Energy of electron is forbidden at specific regions Because of this forbidden regions are called by “Energy band gap”.

34 (a) bound electrons (b) free electrons (c) electrons in a solid Special cases of this system (a) Potential barrier strength is large, Curve in Fig 4.11 proceeds more steeply -> The allowed bands are narrow (b) Potential barrier strength is small, The allowed bands become wider (c) Potential barrier strength goes to 0 (Free electron like) (d) Potential barrier strength is large, (Bound electron like)