Recap What did we say about the components of good learning? 1.Solve real world problems The learning is grounded, not abstract from the environment and tasks that learners perform in their role or life. 2. Activate prior knowledge as a pre-cursor to undertaking new learning Knowledge is seen as the progressive building of layers. Each piece of new knowledge builds on existing knowledge and connects with it. 3. Take on board new knowledge through demonstration and worked examples Seeing how knowledge is applied brings it to life.

4. Try out new learning by applying it Opportunities to learn by doing embed learning emotionally and cognitively. 5. Integrate learning into the learner’s own world of experience The connection between the learning and one’s own frame of experience is made explicit by learners re-framing knowledge in their own language

We will consider three learning design models – Schank’s problem based learning – Gagne’s nine steps of instruction – Epic’s learn-apply model

Learning theories Practical applications of the constructivist approach

The problem based scenarios Situated Learning Experiential learning | Problem Based learning The concept of situated learning is grounded in the principles of constructivist learning theory. It is based on the belief that learning is most efficient and effective when it takes place within the context of realistic educational settings which are either real or created Exemplar situated learning environments use “authentic learning tasks” to immerse learners in the total ecology and culture of the subject matter that is being taught and learned, much like an apprentice carpenter is immersed in a building site with architects and experienced builders (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). These so called authentic learning tasks serve to “anchor” learning and teaching activities in order to scaffold learning and cognition

The challenge The notions of situated learning and the use of authentic learning tasks that serve to anchor and scaffold learning and teaching are heavily dependent on the use of real- world or created educational activities that adequately reflect real-world settings. These sorts of educational activities are inherently complex and as such time- consuming to manage. They are harder to integrate into conventional classroom settings which are limited by the opportunities they afford to engage students in authentic real world problem-solving. While field trips and excursions offer occasional and limited opportunities, they are not enough. Therefore many teachers and organizations refrain from engaging in situated learning activities in their classes and instead depend on approaches that are a lot more expedient and teacher and subject matter (instructive) centered.

A solution Contemporary information and communications technologies offer some reprieve from the confines and constraints of conventional classrooms. They afford us opportunities to capture and/or represent real-world scenarios for use by learners within the conventional classroom. These representations can include actual images or simulations of complex phenomena from the field which can be a lot more easily integrated into the classroom curricula. They can be used as additional resources/tasks in lieu of actual field experience, or they can form a core component of the learning experience of students as is possible in the case of goal based or problem-based learning, case-based reasoning or scenario-based learning

Discussion Can you relate any educational experience where these perspectives on learning were being applied ? What do you remember most clearly about that experience ?

Scenario-based learning

Problem-based

Case-based learning

Learning by designing

Model for problem based learning

StageActivities Pre-learning definition and planningThe first five steps relate mainly to setting expectations and allowing learners to orientate themselves for the learning. 1. GoalsThe goals are the desired end state for the sequence of learning. These equate best to overall aims for the programme of learning. Although this information may not appear explicitly in the sequence of learning, it should be identified and documented by the learning designer, because it is a mark against which success can be judged. 2. expectationsThe end goals are described in terms of their final outcome. 3. PlansThe plan is the route the learner will take to get to the end goal. 4. Expectation failuresWhen the results don’t match expectations, the learner will reflect and learn about the causes for failure. 5. ExplanationsThe explanation the learner receives for failure will be indexed in memory by the learner in store for future learning.

Learning activitiesThe following steps all relate to the participation in the goal based scenario. 6. Learning goalsThe learning goals are the skills sets or knowledge that the learner needs to develop in order to be able to perform a role or task. Roger Schank differentiates between two types of knowledge: Process knowledge – the practice of the skills needed to attain the goal Content knowledge – the information required to attain the goal 7. MissionThe mission is a realistic set of activities that a learner will perform in pursuit of a goal. The mission must be relevant, motivating and meaningful. 8. Cover storyThe cover story is the linking narrative in which the learning tasks are situated. The story is to be developed through the learning sequence.

9. RoleThe role is the part the learner plays in the scenario in order to practice the skills and achieve the goals. 10. Scenario operationsThe scenario operations are all the activities the learner performs in order to meet the requirements of the mission. 11. ResourcesThe resources are all the supporting information required to be able to perform the tasks in the mission. These can take the form of case studies, further stories, fact sheets or coaching content. 12. FeedbackFeedback is essential as it allows the learner to index their cases into memory. The three approaches to feedback that Schank proposes are: a.Feedback about the consequence of actions – the learner sees the impact of negative actions and learns from them b.Feedback through coaching – an expert supports learners and provides feedback and support c. Feedback through exemplas and case study – learners can read other cases and stories which relate to success in learning