Chapter 7: Human Memory

Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory?

Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory

Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Divided attention

Encoding: Getting Information into Memory The role of attention Levels of processing –Incoming information processed at different levels –Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes –Encoding levels: Structural = shallow Phonemic = intermediate Semantic = deep

Figure 7.3 Levels-of-processing theory

Enriching Encoding Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding –Thinking of examples Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered –Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory

Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories –Subdivide memory into three different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

Figure 7.6 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage

Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second

Short Term Memory (STM) Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal –Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 –Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit

Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory –Phonological rehearsal loop –Visuospatial sketchpad –Executive control system

Figure 7.7 Short-term memory as working memory

Long-Term Memory Unlimited Capacity Permanent storage? –Flashbulb memories How is knowledge represented and organized in memory? –Schemas and Scripts –Semantic Networks –Connectionist Networks and PDP Models

Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval –Retrieval cues Reinstating the context –Context cues Reconstructing memories –Misinformation effect Source monitoring

Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Retention – the proportion of material retained –Recall –Recognition –Relearning

Figure 7.10 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables

Why We Forget Ineffective Encoding Decay Interference –Proactive –Retroactive Retrieval failure Repression –Authenticity of repressed memories? –Memory illusions –Controversy

Figure 7.11 Effects of interference

Figure 7.12 Retroactive and proactive interference

Retrieval Failure Encoding Specificity Transfer-Appropriate Processing Repression –Authenticity of repressed memories? –Memory illusions –Controversy

Figure 7.14 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)

The Physiology of Memory Anatomy –Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia Hippocampus Medial temporal lobe memory system Neural circuitry –Localized neural circuits Biochemistry –Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems –Protein synthesis

Figure 7.16 The anatomy of memory

Systems and Types of Memory Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic Prospective vs. Retrospective

Figure 7.17 Theories of independent memory systems

Figure 7.18 Retrospective versus prospective memory