By Lisa Fiore 1

 How is adolescence defined?  What are the leading theories that attempt to explain adolescence?  What are the key factors of physical development in adolescence?  How does cognition develop during the adolescent years?  What changes have occurred to American families and their roles in adolescent life in recent years?  What is the nature of peer relations during the teen years?  How do teens deal with sexual relations?  What recent information do we have on adolescent illegal behavior? 2

How is adolescence defined? 3

Adolescence is a time of life marked by transitions  G. Stanley Hall ◦ stage of life is characterized by “storm and stress” due to amount of change a person experiences in physical, cognitive, and social domains  This stereotype is refuted in research and personal accounts 4

What are the key factors of physical development in adolescence? 5

Puberty: ◦ Process of physical changes by which a child’s body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction Hormonal balance: ◦ Change in hormone levels, one of the triggers of puberty 6

Menarche First ejaculation Timing of events: ◦ Early onset: Early menarche more likely to be associated with depression and substance abuse 7

Secular trend: ◦ Decreasing age of the onset of puberty  Late 18th and early 19th centuries: ◦ Average age of menarche is 17  Today: ◦ Average age of menarche is 12.5  Some researchers linked childhood obesity with early onset of menarche 8

Anorexia nervosa: ◦ Eating disorder characterized by low body weight and distorted body image Bulimia nervosa: ◦ Eating disorder featuring binge eating and purging 9

How does cognition develop during the adolescent years? 10

Formal operations stage: ◦ Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development, featuring abstract thought and scientific thinking 11

 Culture  Gender  Context 12

Spindle cells: ◦ Neurons that play a large role in emotion Reticular activation system (RSS) ◦ Complex sub-cortical system that protects the brain from being overwhelmed Yurgelun-Todd Study on Reactions to Emotions ◦ In teens’ reactions the amygdala was activated ◦ In adults’ reactions the prefrontal cortex played a large role in their responses 13

Adolescent egocentrism (Elkind):  Self-centered thinking patterns of childhood that sometimes occur in the teen years ◦ Imaginary Audience ◦ Personal Fable 14

Increase in executive functioning: ◦ Cognitive efforts involving attention and critical thinking 15

 Convergent thinking: ◦ Thinking used to find one correct answer  Divergent thinking: ◦ Thinking used when a problem to be solved has many possible answers 16

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 5 th Stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion  Identity crisis: ◦ A time of analyzing and making major decisions about one’s identity 17

Identity statuses: ◦ Categories that depict levels of crisis and commitment that contribute to a sense of identity Marcia’s four identities ◦ Identity confusion ◦ Identity foreclosure ◦ Identity moratorium ◦ Identity achievement 18

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Hill’s Biopsychosocial Theory ◦ Biological factors ◦ Psychological factors ◦ Social factors 20

What changes have occurred to American families and their roles in adolescent life in recent years? 21

Adolescence: ◦ the nature of close relationships changes Teens shift qualities of their intimate relationships from their family to their peers 22

Changing Rhythms of American Family Life (Bianchi & others, 2006): Parents: ◦ Mothers today spend more time in the workplace than in previous decades ◦ Mothers spend as much time interacting with their children as mothers did decades ago – perhaps even more ◦ Mothers are generally perceived as more supportive than fathers ◦ Conflicts with parents can help solidify peer relationships 23

Changing Rhythms of American Family Life (Bianchi & others, 2006):  Effect of Divorce: ◦ Divorce occurs most in families with a newborn, and second most in families with an adolescent ◦ Divorce affects as much as one-half of the adolescent population ◦ Additional stress to an adolescent is economic 24

What is the nature of peer relations during the teen years? 25

Friends & Adolescence: ◦ Attracted to qualities in others that they aspire to themselves ◦ Take comfort in finding others who share their personal interests and beliefs 26

Clique: ◦ Group that indicates who one’s friends are Crowd: ◦ Group that indicates how one is perceived by self and others 27

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How do teens deal with sexual relations? 29

Heterosexual: ◦ Sexual attraction to members of the opposite sex Homosexual: ◦ Sexual attraction to members of the same sex LGBT: ◦ An acronym referring to lesbian (female), gay (male), bisexual, and transgender individuals ◦ Can include a Q for queer or questioning (LGBTQ) 30

 Masturbation: ◦ is the most common sexual outlet in adolescence  Decision to engage in sexual behavior with others depends on: ◦ Culture ◦ Gender ◦ Geographical location 31

Teen Sex: ◦ Many adolescents do not think they are having sex if their physical acts stop short of actual intercourse  Decreased in last decade: ◦ Incidence of adolescents ever having sex ◦ The number of adolescents with multiple sex partners 32

Sexual Abuse of a Teen: ◦ typically by someone they know and trust ◦ often just a continuation of abuse that started during childhood ◦ most common type of serious sexual abuse is incest between father and daughter 33

Sexual Abuse of a Teen: ◦ Puts adolescent at greater risk  running away  having eating disorders  being a sexual victim  engaging in substance abuse 34

Reasons for Teen Pregnancy: ◦ Lack of accurate information that teens receive about sex and contraception ◦ Some desire pregnancy for social or psychological reasons ◦ Some adolescent girls get pregnant by sheer accident 35

NIMH Statistics on Mental Illness in Teens:  Incidence of mental health problems is about 1 in 10 youth and rising  Suffer from a wide range of mental health disorders ◦ Anxiety disorders ◦ Depression ◦ Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders ◦ Eating disorders ◦ Autism and other pervasive developmental disorders ◦ Conduct disorders ◦ Substance abuse disorders 36

King (2000) suggests the following warning signs for adolescent suicide: Depressed mood Substance abuse Loss of interest in once-pleasurable activities Decreased activity and attention levels Distractibility Withdrawal from others Sleep or appetite changes Morbid ideation 37

King (cont.) Verbal cues or written cues Giving possessions away A previous suicide attempt Low self-esteem or a recent relationship breakup Being homosexual Coming from an abusive home Easy access to a firearm Low grades Exposure to suicide or suicidal behavior by another person 38

What recent information do we have on adolescent illegal behavior? 39

Trends:  Use of alcohol, amphetamines, and tobacco dropping significantly  Rise in abuse of prescription drugs  Excessive alcohol use during one’s teen years can impair later brain functioning  Use of tobacco products more popular in high schools ◦ Kreteks and Bidis 40

Adolescents and Stress:  Higher Education Research Institute ◦ 30% say they feel “overwhelmed by all I have to do” ◦ Almost twice as great among women (39%) than among men (20%) ◦ A significant part of this pressure comes from the need to work 41

Gang violence still high  Early-onset trajectory: ◦ Criminal behavior that begins before puberty  Late-onset trajectory: ◦ Criminal behavior that begins after puberty 42