Motor Performance During Childhood chapter 4 Motor Performance During Childhood

Overview of the Chapter Understanding how motor skills develop Four guiding principles Reflexes and reactions Rudimentary movements Fundamental motor skills Proficiency barrier and transitional skills Categories of skills: locomotor, nonlocomotor, object control Modifying task demands

Use of Motor Skills Motor milestones Fundamental movement patterns Skill for participation Reasons to monitor motor skills Unusual deviations should be referred for further evaluation Base movement experiences on normal sequential development Factors that emerge without or with practice Motor skills are important in American culture

Four Guiding Principles Children are not miniature adults Age differences in skills Why do skills change? Boys and girls are more alike than different Gender differences small before puberty Opportunities for practice and encouragement Good things are earned: Phylogenetic versus ontogenetic skills No body is perfect: Practice and feedback are essential

Reflexes, Reactions, and Rudimentary Movements Reflexes—Moro (startle) Reactions—balance adjustments (figure 4.1) Rudimentary movements—phylogenetic skills and motor milestones (see figure 4.2 on page 67 of the textbook) Nature versus nurture (twin studies)

Figure 4.1 Developmental Motor Skill Acquisition Reprinted from Gallagher (1984).

Order for Motor Milestones Child prone Chin raised Chest raised Reaching Sit with support Sit on parent’s lap, grasp object Walk when held by hand Creep (continued)

Order for Motor Milestones (continued) Stand holding on Stand with help Sit alone Sit on chair Pull to stand Climb stairs Stand alone Walk alone

Results of Twin Studies for “Jimmy and Johnny” Short-term benefit—trained twin performed skill earlier No long-term benefit—untrained twin “caught up” Skill acquisition was easier when taught at typical age Infants and children can benefit from early training

Results of Deprivation Studies Phylogenetic skills are influenced by genetics with little impact by practice Phylogenetic skills develop without practice when children are given opportunity Ontogenetic skills respond to practice but early practice produces only short-term benefits

Fundamental Motor Skills Locomotor—general patterns emerge and are refined during childhood: running, walking, hopping, skipping Manipulative skills—used to interact with an object: catching, kicking, striking, throwing Nonlocomotor skills—bending, stretching, reaching Intra- and intertask sequences

Learning Motor Skills Proficiency barrier—children master most fundamental skills but need practice to move to the specific use of the skill Transitional skills—practice helps children move (transition) through the proficiency barrier into sport-specific use of the skill: kicking a ball versus kicking a soccer ball on goal

Specific Sport Skills Requires a lot of practice Sports, dance, and gymnastics require combinations of skills in novel ways and often quickly Bloom’s taxonomy (table 4.3)

Table 4.3 Taxonomy of Psychomotor and Cognitive Domains Action descriptors Cognitive Perceiving Name, identify Knowledge Define, list, state Patterning Demonstrate Comprehen-sion Give example, compare Adapting Modify Application Demonstrate, calculate Refining Transfer, use in game Analysis Distinguish, test, examine (continued)

Table 4.3 Taxonomy of Psychomotor and Cognitive Domains (continued) Action descriptors Cognitive Varying Combine, create Synthesis Propose, design, construct Valuing Judge, correct Evaluation Judge, predict, choose

Locomotor Skills Walking and running Transition from nonflight to flight phase Running speed (figure 4.3) Jumping, hopping, galloping, sliding, and skipping Climbing

Figure 4.3 Running Speed During Childhood Reprinted from Espenschade and Eckert (1974).

Manipulative Skills Catching Striking and kicking Throwing (figure 4.4): Explanations are evolution, sociocultural, practice Speed–accuracy trade-off

Figure 4.4 Effect Size for Overarm Throwing Adapted from Thomas and French (1985).

Other Issues Motor abilities Modifying task demands Genetic Practice Target size Distance Object size