CHAPTER 23 “The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I”

Population Trends and Migration At the turn of the century, Europeans made up 20% of the world’s overall population – 266 million 1900 – 401 million 1910 – 447 million Though the growth seen in Europe was steady, it was surpassed by the tremendous growth seen in underdeveloped countries. This continuing growth contributes to the overpopulation seen in various parts of the world today.

European Migration During the mid 1800s serfdom was eliminated in many parts of Europe allowing people to move as never done before. Improved transportation systems also allowed for an increase in migration throughout Europe. Inexpensive land and a promise of hope throughout the developing nations of the world further encouraged people to move. Between 1846 and 1932, over 50 million Europeans left for various parts of the world. During the latter part of the 19 th century, eastern Europeans also began to migrate out of Europe. Helped to relieve many social pressures occurring in Europe. This massive migration of the 19 th century helped to “Europeanize” the world.

The Second Industrial Revolution During the last quarter century of the 1800s, the continent of Europe closed the economic gap between them and England. Belgium, France, and Germany all saw dramatic increases in industrial production. German steel production overtook that of Great Britain in 1983 and more then doubled it in The industrialization of Europe and especially Germany had a major impact on the economic and political life of the continent.

New Industries The first industrial revolution was fired by textiles, steam, and iron. The Second Industrial Revolution will be lead by steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil. During the 1850, Henry Bessemer developed a process to manufacture steel cheaply and quickly ,000 tons of steel produced – 32, 020,000 tons of steel produced. The Solway process revolutionized the utilization of chemical by-products for soaps, dyes, and plastics.

New Industries / Electricity The growth of electrical use probably had the greatest impact on the Second Industrial Revolution. Versatile, efficient and easily transportable. Great Britain built the first public power plant in Electrical use spread rapidly throughout Western Europe. Electric lighting, streetcars and subways.

Major Dates of the Second Industrial Revolution 1857: Bessemer process for making steel. 1873: Beginning of major economic downturn. 1876: Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone. 1879: Thomas Edison perfects the electric light. 1881: First electric power plant in Britain. 1886: Daimler invents internal combustion engine. 1887: Daimler’s first automobile. 1895: Diesel engine invented. 1895: Wireless telegraphy invented. 1903: Wright brothers make first successful airplane flight. 1909: Ford manufacturers the Model T.

Economic Difficulties Despite advances in industrial growth, the last half of the 19 th century did not see continuous economic growth. The last quarter of the century saw an economic downturn due to increased foreign competition and poor weather. This economic depression hit the agricultural sector the hardest and Europe saw an increase of emigration again out of the predominantly agricultural areas.

Economic Woes & Outcomes A depression in 1873 forced the closing of several banks throughout Europe and the United States. Followed by two decades of economic stagnation. Both prices and wages fell. Real wages maintained during the period and in some countries, rose. Most workers still lived in sub par conditions. Strikes and other types of labor conflicts occurred. The economic downturn allowed for the growth of trade unions and socialist party activity.

Consumer Growth The demand for consumer goods brought the economy back from the depression by Lower food prices allowed for more discretionary income. Urbanization also created larger markets for consumer goods. New forms of marketing developed during the last part of the 19 th century. Department stores, chain stores, mail-order businesses, and improved advertising stimulated the demand for consumer durables.

Rise of the Middle Class The latter half of the 19 th century saw the emergence of a great middle class in Europe. In the first half of the 19 th century, the middle class were the leaders of revolution, now they are the leaders of commerce. Due to their increase in wealth, the middle class often united with the upper class to fend off socialism and other liberal movements. The middle class also became the leaders of the consumer market in Europe and the United States.

Social Distinctions The middle class of Europe was actually quite diverse in its membership. Large business owners and bankers were the most prosperous and their lifestyle rivaled that of the aristocracy. W.H. Smith (owned newsstands) became a member of the House of Lords. The Krupp family (munitions and steel) were highly respected. Only a few hundred of such families gained this kind of wealth.

Entrepreneurs & Professionals The next level within the middle class included business owners and professionals. Obtained enough wealth to afford private homes as well as various luxury items. Below this group were small business owners, teachers, and others whose employment was due to their educational attainment. Though not as wealthy, they gained respect for their employment in non manual labor positions. The lowest level of the middle class was made up of the “petite bourgeoisie.” Made up of white collar workers such as clerks, secretaries and lower level government officials.

Jewish Emancipation Equal citizenship for Jews in Europe was a major accomplishment of political liberalism. In 1782, Joseph II of Austria gave Jews the same basic rights as Christians. In 1789, the National Assembly of France recognized Jews as French citizens. Throughout Western and Central Europe, Jews gradually gained more and more rights as citizens. In Poland and Russia however, prejudice and discrimination continued against the Jews thru W.W. I. The pogroms of Russia terrorized the Jewish people forcing many to flee west.pogroms

Broadened Opportunities After the revolutions of 1848, Jews throughout most of Europe saw a general improvement upon the lives. Attained full citizenship in Germany, Scandinavia, and Italy. In 1858, Jews could sit at Parliament. 1867, full citizenship given to Jews In the Austrian- Hungarian Empire. Large numbers of Jewish men began to enter professions such as lawyers and doctors that had once been closed to them.

Anti-Semitism After 1880, the peace seen by the Jews of Europe began to erode. Jewish bankers and financiers were blamed for the economic depression of the 1870s. In the 1880s, organized anti-Semitism developed in Germany. The Dreyfus Affair in France also showed hatred of the Jews.Dreyfus Affair A Jewish officer in the French army accused and convicted of being a spy. Most Jewish leaders believed this intolerance was only temporary. Anti-Semiticism will reach its peak during the 1930s and 40s. The Holocaust

Ch 23.2 Urban Life in Europe Women During the Latter Half of the 19 th Century

Problems of Urban Life By 1911, 44% of the population of France lived in urban centers, as well as 60% in Germany. This massive influx of people into the cities caused many problems. Poor housing. Social anonymity. Unemployment of unskilled labor or unnecessary skilled labor. Ethnic diversity and conflict. Political and social discontent.  Anti-Semitism against Russian Jews migrating west.

Growth of Major European Cities Cities Berlin419,0001,122,0002,071,000 Birmingham233, , ,000 Frankfurt 65, , ,000 London 2,685,0004,470,0007,256,000 Madrid281, , ,000 Moscow365, ,0001,533,000 Paris 1,053,0002,269,0002,888,000 Rome175, , ,000 St. Petersburg485, ,0001,962,000 Vienna444,0001,104,0002,031,000 Warsaw160, , ,000

The New Cities of Europe Due to the massive influx of people into the cities, city planners went to work to accommodate the growing populations. The most famous transformation took place in Paris. Paris was a mix of lavish houses and squalor. The Seine River was an open sewer and the streets full of garbage. The redesign of Paris occurred during the reign of Napoleon III. The reconstruction program of Paris was undertaken by Georges Haussmann.

A New Paris Whole districts were destroyed to make way for open boulevards and streets. Wide streets were not only aesthetically popular but also allowed for the quick movement of troops throughout the city. Several parks such as the Bois de Boulogne were built. Structures such as the Paris Opera House along with several other public buildings. At the end of the Third Republic and the Commune, Paris saw further expansion. Departments stores, office buildings and middle class housing sprung up throughout the city. Two other major constructions were the Eiffel Tower and the Basilica of the Sacred Heart Construction of a subway began in 1895.

Development of Suburbs Due to the redevelopment of Paris as well as other cities the poor and the lower middle classes were forced to find other housing. The middle class looked for less congestion. The working class looked for affordability. New housing districts called suburbs developed because of the expansion of the railway systems. Low daily fares allowed workers to live on the outskirts of the cities and commute to their jobs within the city. The development of the subway and electrical tram systems also promoted such growth.

Urban Sanitation Another primary concern among city leaders was providing proper sanitation systems for their growing cities. This concern was caused by the great Cholera epidemics of the 1830s and 1840s. This epidemic not only hit the poor but all classes which brought much greater pressure on city officials to solve the problem. Several books were also published during this period describing the filth found within European cities. Edwin Chadwick’s “Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population,” shocked England.Edwin Chadwick’s

Water and Sewage Systems It was determined that in order to clean up the cities of Europe new water and sewage systems were needed. A major health achievement of the last half of the 19 th century. The new sewer system of Paris was also part of Haussmann’s plans for the city. Throughout Europe various types of water and sewer systems were installed and the spread of diseases such as Cholera dropped dramatically.

Public Health Programs Several government programs were established during this period to solve the urban health issue. Public Health Act of 1848 (England) Melon Act of 1851 (France) Public health officials were given power to investigate structures and homes in the name of public health. Private property could be condemned for posing health hazards to the community. Private land could be purchased for the construction of sewer and water systems. By the end of the century, the bacterial theory of disease was fully accepted due to the work of Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch and Joseph Lister.Louis PasteurJoseph Lister

Housing Reforms Sanitation reform also brought about changes in housing. The housing of the poor was often a breeding ground for bacteria. Following the revolutions of 1848, changes began to develop throughout Western Europe. Housing reforms looked to solve the various medical, political and moral issues posed by the slums. Early leaders of such reform were A.V. Huber of Germany and Jules Simon of France. These reformers believed that adequate, respectable housing would social many of Europe’s social and political problems. Several countries provided tax breaks and provided low interest loans for lower income housing. By 1914, though not completely solved, Europe was attempting to solve the issue of proper housing for people.

Women During the Latter Half of the 19 th Century

Social and Legal Problems The women of the late 19 th century faced three social and legal disabilities in three areas: Property rights Married women could not own property. No legal standing before the law. Reforms came slowly  1882, Britain passed the Married Woman’s Property Act.  In 1905, French women could open their own savings account.  In German women were allowed to take a job without their husbands permission. Family Law Legal codes forced women to “give obedience” to their husbands. Divorce was difficult. Abortion and contraception were illegal Rape cases usually worked to the disadvantage of the woman. The authority of the husband also extended to the rights of the children.

Social and Legal Problems (cont.) Education  Women had less access to education than men had.  What was available was inferior to that of the men.  The illiteracy rate of women was much higher than that of men in Europe.  Changes and Reforms  1860, the University of Zurich opened its doors to women.  1878, the University of London accepted women.  Eastern European countries were slower to allow women into higher educational institutions.  Secondary Education  The lack of public and private secondary schools limited the number of women qualified to attend the universities.  This was due to men not wanting competition in their own fields.

Working Women Two major events occurred involving women during the Second Industrial Revolution. A rise in the number of professional jobs available outside the home. Government and corporate bureaucracies provided opportunities for women. Retail stores also provided new opportunities. Many teachers were now women.  Women in all positions were paid less than men The withdrawal of married women from the workforce. The number of jobs in the textile industries were shrinking Employers wanted unmarried women whose family would not interfere with their work. Women were also allowed to stay home because the real wages of their husbands grew providing enough income for the family.

Poverty and Prostitution During the 19 th century there were about twice as many women seeking work as their were jobs. Prostitution was not new, but became a means for women to make a living in an overcrowded labor force. Most were 18 to 25, and were from the rural areas. Fewer prostitutes were found in manufacturing cities since jobs were more available. Prostitution was usually legal and regulated by municipal governments.

Major Date in Late 19 th & Early 20 th Century Women’s History 1869: John Stuart Mill’s The Subjection of Women. 1894: Union of German Women’s Organization founded. 1907: Norway permits women to vote on national issues. 1910: British suffragettes adopt radical tactics. 1918: Vote extended to some British women. 1918: 19 th Amendment of U.S. Constitution amended allowing women to vote. 1920: Oxford and Cambridge award degrees to women. 1922: French Senate defeats bill extending vote to women. 1928: Britain extends vote to women on same basis as men.

Ch 23.3 Labor, Socialism, and Politics to World War I

Changes in Labor During the latter half of the 19 th century, the number of unskilled laborers grew dramatically. Working conditions were still poor, but after the revolutions of 1848, they began to use other methods to improve their lot in life other than riots. Chief among these new methods were: The development of trade unions. The support of democratic political parties. The support of more radical socialist parties.

Trade Unions Trade unions began to flourish when governments began to offer them legal protection. Made legal in Britain in Napoleon III allowed weak labor unions to form by 1868 and by 1884, unions were fully recognized. In Germany unions were allowed after Early unions concentrated on skilled labor. Sought to improve wages and working conditions. By the end of the century, unions for unskilled laborers were begin organized. These unions met great opposition from the owners. Frequently had to resort to long strikes to achieve their demands. Membership in unions grew during this period but most workers were not unionized.

Democracy By the end of the 19 th century almost all of Europe used a democratic electoral system. Universal Male Suffrage Britain – 1884 Germany – 1871 Switzerland – 1879 Spain – 1890 Italy, 1912 Due to the broadened franchise, politicians could no longer afford to ignore the common laborer of Europe. The advent of democracy brought organized mass political parties like those already in existence in the United States to Europe for the first time. The new political parties of Europe mobilized the new voters of Europe.

Socialist Political Parties In 1864, a group of British and French trade unionists founded the International Working Men’s Association. International Working Men’s Association. Known as the “First International.” Membership included socialists, anarchists and Polish nationalists. Karl Marx gave the inaugural address to the first meeting of the Association. Though short lived, the “First International” had a great impact upon the rise of socialism throughout Europe. Helped promote Marxism as the dominant form of socialism on the continent.

Fabian Society Neither Marxism or any other form of socialism made great strides in Great Britain. Due to the growth of organized labor in Britain, socialism will not gain wide spread support. The Independent Labor party founded in 1893 was ineffective in spreading radical Marxist ideas. Organized labor in Britain made great gains in 1906, when the newly organized Labour Party had 29 members elected to Parliament. The one socialist group that prospered within Britain was the non- Marxist intellectual group called the “Fabian Society.” Named after Q. Fabius Maximus, the Roman general whose tactics against Hannibal involved avoiding direct conflict that might lead to defeat.

Fabianism The Fabian Society promoted gradual change in regards to social reforms. Leading members were: Sidney Webb, H.G. Wells, George Bernard Shaw & Graham Wallas. There goal instead of activism was the educating of the masses in regards to socialism. Particularly interested in the collective ownership of municipal services. “Gas-and-Water” socialism

British Reforms Parliament acted slowly to pressures by liberal groups within Britain. Joseph Chamberlain unsuccessfully attempted to establish social reforms and financing them through tariff increases. This campaign split the Conservative party. In 1906, fearing the loss of seats to the Labor Party, the Liberal party reinstated laws protecting unions. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George, Britain enacted several new laws protecting the rights of the worker. The National Insurance Act of 1911, provided unemployment benefits and health care for workers.

Social Democratic Party of Germany Bismarck attempted to hold socialism in check in Germany. Even though they were not involved he used the assassination attempt against William I against socialist groups and had several antisocialist laws passed. Bismarck’s attempts failed eventually and members of the Social Democratic Party gained more seats in the German Reichstag. To counter the socialist movement, Bismarck enacted a plan for old and and disability pensions.

Marxist Socialism in Germany After William II forced the resignation of Bismarck, he repealed the antisocialist laws. Tried to build a new political support among the working class. With these laws lifted the socialist leadership needed to decide what direction to take. Erfurt Program Under the leadership of Karl Kautsky, the socialist movement in Germany became strongly pro-Marxist, advocating the demise of capitalism.Karl Kautsky But, instead of promoting revolution, the party favored to work in the aid of the working classes of Germany.

Russian Socialism 1892: Witte appointed finance minister. 1895: Lenin arrested and sent to Siberia. 1897: 11 ½ hour work-day established. 1898: Russian Social Democratic Party founded. 1900: Lenin leaves Russia for Western Europe. 1901: Socialist Revolutionary Party founded. 1903: Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets)founded. 1903: Bolsheviks and Mensheviks split. 1903: Witte dismissed.

Russian Socialism 1904: Russo-Japanese War 1905: Japan defeats Russia 1905: Bloody Sunday 1905: General strikes occur throughout Russia. 1905: October manifesto establishes constitutional government. 1906: First meeting of the Duma. 1906: Stolypin appointed prime minister. 1906: Dissolution of first Duma. 1906: Land redemptions payments canceled for peasants. 1907: Second Duma seated and dismissed 1907: Third Duma elected 1911: Stolypin assassinated. 1912: Fourth Duma elected.