PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD CHAPTER 17

Learning Objectives

PHYSCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD

What is old age?

GERONTOLOGISTS Specialists who study aging Late adulthood as a period of considerable diversity in which people change Growth in some areas, decline in others

Aging: Myth and Reality Late adulthood holds a unique distinction among the periods of human life: It is actually increasing in length Greater proportion of people living in late adulthood Elderly population now divided by functional aging –Young old (65 to 74 years) –Old old (75 to 84 years) –Oldest old (85 years and older)

How is old age divided? Some researchers divide aging people into three groups: Young old are healthy and active Old old have some health problems and difficulties Oldest old are frail and need care

The Flourishing Elderly

Demographics of Aging Figure 17-2 The Elderly Population Worldwide Longer life is transforming population profiles worldwide, with the proportion of those over the age of 60 predicted to increase substantially by the year (Source: Based on United Nations Population Division, 2002.)

Who are the oldest old? Oldest old Fastest growing segment of the population People who are 85 or older Group's size has nearly doubled in the last 20 years Trend is occurring in every developed country in the world

Ageism Prejudice and discrimination directed at older people is manifested in several ways Negative attitudes about older people, especially about competence and attractiveness Job discrimination

Discrimination Identical behavior by an older person and a younger person is interpreted differently People talk baby talk to persons in nursing homes Most negative views are based on misinformation

Myths of Aging

Physical Transitions Primary Aging Secondary Aging

You know you are aging when… Grey and white hair; thinner Wrinkles Diminishing height

Osteoporosis Bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a lack of calcium in the diet 25 percent of women over 60 have osteoporosis Largely preventable with sufficient calcium and exercise

Double Standard Women, especially in Western cultures, suffer from the double standard for appearance Women who show signs of aging are judged more harshly than are men Women are more likely to dye their hair Women are more likely to have plastic surgery

Changes in Internal Function Brain becomes smaller and lighter with age –Reduction of blood flow to the brain –Space between the skull and the brain doubles from age 20 to 70 –Number of neurons, or brain cells, declines

All Systems Go…or Gone? 75-year-old's heart pumps less than three-quarters of the blood it pumped during early adulthood Efficiency of the respiratory system declines with age Digestive system produces less digestive juice and is less efficient in pushing food through the system

Capacities

Peripheral Slowing Hypothesis Older adults’ reaction time slows significantly Suggests that overall processing speed declines in peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and brain)

Generalized Slowing Hypothesis Processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient Older people have more accidents Decision process is slowed down

Vehicle Fatalities Across the Life Span

Senses Old age brings a distinct declining in the sense organs of the body Vision –Lens becomes less transparent and the pupils shrink –Optic nerve becomes less efficient –Distant objects become less acute

The Eyes Have It! Cataracts Cloudy or opaque areas of the lens of eye that interfere with passing light, frequently develop Cataracts can be surgically removed Intraocular lens implants

Glaucoma Pressure in the fluid of the eye Glaucoma can be corrected with drugs or surgery Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) –Affects the macula

The World Through Macular Degeneration The most common cause of blindness in people over the age of 60 is age-related macular degeneration (AMD). This disorder affects the macula, a yellowish area of the eye located near the retina at which visual perception is most acute. When a portion of the macula thins and degenerates, the eyesight gradually deteriorates (see Figure 17-6 ). If diagnosed early, macular degeneration can sometimes be treated with medication or lasers. In addition, there is some evidence that a diet rich in antioxidant vitamins (C, E, and A) can reduce the risk of the disease.

Hearing 30 percent of adults between 65 and 74 have some hearing loss 50 percent of adults over 75 have hearing loss High frequencies are the hardest to hear Overall, more than 10 million elderly people in the United States have hearing impairments of one kind or another

Hearing Aids Hearing aids would be helpful 75 percent of the time Only 20 percent of people wear them Are imperfect and amplify all sounds so it is difficult to discern conversations There is a stigma attached to wearing a hearing aid Because they cannot hear, some people withdraw from society because they feel left out and lonely

Taste and Smell Both senses become less discriminating in old age Due to decline in taste buds on tongue Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and reduce the ability to smell –People eat less and get poor nutrition –Older people may over-salt their food and develop hypertension, or high blood pressure

Review and Apply REVIEW Older people are often the victims of ____—prejudice and discrimination against ____ ____. Old age brings both ____ changes (thinning and graying hair, wrinkles, and shorter stature) and ____ changes (decreased brain size, reduced blood flow within the brain, and diminished efficiency in circulation, respiration, and digestion). The two main hypotheses to explain the increase in reaction time in old age are the ____ ____hypothesis and the ____ ____hypothesis.

Review and Apply REVIEW Vision may become more difficult at ____, in ____ ____, and when moving from ____ ____ ____ and vice versa. Hearing, especially of ____ frequencies, may diminish, causing ____ and ____ difficulties, and ____ and ____ may become less discriminating, leading to nutritional problems.

Review and Apply APPLY Should strict examinations for renewal of driver's licenses be imposed on older people? What issues should be taken into consideration?

HEALTH AND WELLNESS IN LATE ADULTHOOD

Health Problems in Older People People of all ages suffer from cancer, heart disease, and other diseases and illnesses Incidence of these diseases increase with age Rebound is often slower

Physical Disorders Common Physical Disorders Leading causes of death are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Higher incidence of infectious disease ArthritisHypertension

Psychological and Mental Disorders Common Psychological Disorders Major depression Drug-induced psychological disorders Dementia

Alzheimer's Disease Progressive brain disorder Produces loss of memory and confusion Incidence and projection

Alzheimer's Disease Figure 17-7 A Different Brain? Brain scans during memory recall tasks show differences between the brains of people who have an inherited tendency toward Alzheimer's disease and those who do not. The brains at the top are a composite of those at risk; the brains in the middle are a composite of normal brains. The bottom row indicates areas of difference between the first two rows. (Source: Bookheimer et al., 2000.)

Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms Develop gradually Start with forgetfulness Affect recent memories first and then older memories fade Causes total confusion, inability to speak intelligibly or recognize closest family members Loss of voluntary control of muscles occurs

The Biology of Alzheimer's Disease Biology Production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein goes awry Produces large clumps of cells that trigger inflammation and deterioration of nerve cell Brain shrinks Neuron death leads to shortage of various neurotransmitters

What about a genetic link? Genetics Inherited disorder Nongenetic factors such as high blood pressure or diet may increase susceptibility Cross-cultural influences

Treatment and Cure Treatment and cure No cure Treatment deals only with the symptoms Drugs effective in only half of Alzheimer's patients Many end in nursing homes

Caring for People with Alzheimer's Disease Make patients feel secure Provide labels for everyday objects Keep clothing simple Put bathing on a schedule Prevent people with the disease from driving Monitor the use of the telephone Provide opportunities for exercise Take care of caregiver!

Relationship Between Aging and Illness Certain diseases, such as cancer and heart disease, have clear genetic component Economic well-being also plays role Psychological factors play important role in determining people's susceptibility to illness—and ultimately likelihood of death

Chronic Illness Most older people have at least one chronic, long-term condition Arthritis –Inflammation of one or more joints, is common, striking around half of older people Hypertension –High blood pressure, striking about one-third of older people

Psychological Illness 15 to 25 percent of those over age 65 show some symptoms of psychological malady Depression Dementia

Can well-being improve? People can do specific things to enhance their physical and psychological well-being and their longevity – their active life spans -- during old age Eat a proper diet Exercise Avoid threats to health, such as smoking

Benefits of Exercise and Healthy Diet Figure 17-8 Benefits of Exercise and a Healthy Diet A study of more than 7,000 men, aged 40 to 59, found that not smoking, keeping weight down, and exercising regularly can greatly reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. Although the study included only men, a healthy lifestyle can benefit women too. (To find your body mass index (BMI) multiply your weight in pounds by 705. Divide the result by your height in inches, then divide by your again.) (Source: Based on Wannamethee et al., 1998.)

Malnutrition and Hunger Sometimes older people experience difficulties that prevent them from following even these simple guidelines. Varying estimates suggest that between 15 and 50 percent of elderly people do not have adequate nutrition, and several million experience hunger every day –Poverty –Physical inability to shop or cook –Lack of motivation to eat properly –Decline in taste and smell sensitivity

Sex in Old Age: Use It or Lose It Related to physical and mental health and previous sexual activity Evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s and 90s Previous sexual activity increases the desire for sex Having sex regularly is associated with lower risk of death

Sexuality in Late Adulthood Physical changes Decline in testosterone Erection timing and refractory period Vaginal changes Sexual activity Masturbation Intercourse Susceptibility to STDs

Old and Pretty or Pretty Old? Figure 17-9 Attractiveness over Time More than 50 percent of Americans over age 45 find their partners attractive, and as goes on, more attractive. (Source: AARP/Modern Maturity Sexuality Study, 1999.)

Approaches to Aging Genetic programming theories of aging Wear-and-tear theories of aging Life Expectancy

Reconciling Theories of Aging Each is supported by some research Each seems to explain certain aspects of aging Why the body begins to deteriorate and die remains something of a mystery

How long will YOU live?

Living to Age 100 Figure Living to Age 100 If increases in life expectancy continue, it may be a common occurrence for people to live to be 100 by the end of this century. What implications does this have for society? (Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1997.)

Animal Life Spans Maximum recorded life spans for animals found in the wild. (Source: Based on Kirkwood, 2010).

Diversity in Aging Lifespan averages Caucasian in the U.S. is likely to live 78 years African American is likely to live 72.5 years Japanese is likely to live 83 years Mozambique male is likely to live less than 40 years Gender averages But by the age of 65, 84 percent of females and only 70 percent of males are still alive. For every male, 2.57 women are still alive

Life Expectancy of African Americans and Whites

Finding the Fountain of Youth Telomere therapy Drug therapy Unlocking longevity gene Reducing free radicals through antioxidant drugs Reducing calories Bionic solution: Replacing worn-out organs

Review and Apply REVIEW Although most older people are ____, the incidence of some serious diseases rises in old age, and most people have at least ____ chronic ailment before they die. Older people are susceptible to psychological disorders such as ____. The most prevalent and damaging brain disorder among older people is ____ disease.

Review and Apply REVIEW Proper diet, exercise, and avoidance of health risks can lead to ____ wellness during old age, and ____ can continue throughout the life span in healthy adults. Whether death is caused by ____ ____or by ____ ____ ____ ____ is an unresolved question. Life expectancy, which has risen for centuries, varies with ____, ____, and ____. New approaches to increasing life expectancy include ____ ____, reducing ____ ____ through ____ drugs, restricting ____ ____, and replacing worn-out organs.

Review and Apply APPLY In what ways is socioeconomic status related to wellness in old age and to life expectancy?

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD

True or False? Researchers no longer see cognitive abilities of older people as inevitably declining

Intelligence in Older People Older Research Studies and Findings Notion that older people become less cognitively adept initially arose from misinterpretations of research evidence Problems Cohort effects Reaction time components Retesting effects Subject attrition

Recent Conclusions about Nature of Intelligence in Older People Schaie = Sequential methods Some abilities gradually decline; others stay relatively steady No uniform pattern of age-related changes across all intellectual abilities Acquired strategies remains steady and may improve

Changes in Intellectual Functioning

Fluid and Crystal Intelligence Some abilities (fluid intelligence) decline, starting at age 25 Other abilities (crystallized intelligence) stay steady or increase For some, there were cognitive declines in all abilities by age 67

Environmental Factors Certain environmental and cultural factors are related to greater or lesser degrees of intellectual decline Lesser declines are associated with many factors

1, 2, 3…Think! Exercising the aging brain Continued cognitive stimulation keeps cognitive abilities sharp Training showed long-term effects Engaging in some form of mental workout- consistently and continually increasing the level of difficulty-is key to success

An Opposing View…Salthouse Rate of true, underlying cognitive decline in late adulthood is unaffected by mental exercise Cognitive reserve –Allows continued performance at relatively high mental levels, even with underlying declines –Controversial

How does aging affect this? Think about what you have just learned about memory How might aging contribute to retroactive and proactive interference? What development information about aging might support your response?

Memory: Remembrance of Things Past – and Present Episodic memory Semantic memory Short-term memory

Decline and Stability Age-related memory declines are limited primarily to episodic memories Semantic memories and implicit memories are largely unaffected by age

Once upon a time Autobiographical memory Pollyanna principle Recall of material that "fits" current self-view Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others

Remembrances of Things Past Recall of autobiographical memories varies with age, with seventy-year-olds recalling details from their 20s and 30s best, and fifty-year-olds recalling memories from their teenage years and 20s. People of both ages also recall more recent memories best of all. (Source: Rubin, 1986.)

Explaining Memory Changes in Old Age Explanations for apparent changes in memory among older people tend to focus on three main categories Environmental factors Information processing deficits Biological factors

Environmental Factors Certain environmental and cultural factors are related to greater or lesser degrees of intellectual decline Lesser declines are associated with many factors

Information-Processing Deficits Deficits Inability to inhibit irrelevant information and thoughts declines Speed of processing declines Attention declines Less efficient retrieval methods

Biological Factors Brain and body deterioration Especially frontal lobes Continuation of education in old age Can improve cognitive skills

It's Never Too Late… Popularity of programs such as Road Scholar is part of a growing trend among older people Retired people have time to pursue further education Many public colleges encourage senior citizens to enroll in classes by providing them with free tuition Older adults often have no trouble maintaining their standing in rigorous college classes Professors and other students generally find presence of older people real educational benefit

Technology and Learning in Late Adulthood People 65 and older are less likely to use technology than younger individuals Less interested and motivated Cognitive barrier related to decline in fluid intelligence

Review and Apply REVIEW Although some intellectual abilities gradually ____ throughout adulthood, starting at around age ____, others stay relatively ____. The intellect retains considerable ____ and can be maintained with ____, ____, and ____. Declines in memory affect mainly ____ memories and ____ memory. Explanations of memory changes in old age have focused on ____ factors, information processing ____, and ____ factors.

Review and Apply APPLY Do you think steady or increasing crystallized intelligence can partially or fully compensate for declines in fluid intelligence? Why or why not?

EPILOGUE Return to the prologue of this chapter, about Abigail Mitchell's hobby of writing murder mysteries, and answer the following questions. In what ways does Abigail defy stereotypes of older people? How might the physical changes Abigail has experienced affect her daily functioning?

EPILOGUE Does Abigail's intellectual functioning seem consistent with her age? Why or why not? How might Abigail's comfort with new technologies be related to her cognitive functioning?