+ Primary Data

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Behavior Checklist Purchase Behavior What How Much How Where When Who Use Behavior

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Basic Choices Among Means for Collecting Primary Data Communication Observation Degree of Structure Method of Administration Degree of Disguise Degree of Structure Setting Degree of Disguise Method of Administration Human Mechanical Natural Contrived Undisguised Disguised Structured Unstructured Personal Interview Telephone Interview Mail Questionnaire Undisguised Disguised Structured Unstructured

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages AdvantagesDisadvantages Mail * May be only method able to reach respondent * Sampling frame easily developed when mailing lists are available *Not subject to interviewer bias *Respondents work at their own pace *Assures anonymity of respondent *Wide distribution possible *Best for personal, sensitive questions *Generally least expensive *Very little control in securing response from specific individual *Cannot secure response from illiterates *Cannot control speed of response; long response time *Researcher cannot explain ambiguous questions *Does not allow probing with open-ended questions *Difficult to change sequence of questions *Sequence bias; respondents can view entire questionnaire as they respond

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages AdvantagesDisadvantages Telephone *Relatively low cost *Wide distribution possible *Interviewer supervision is strong; less interviewer bias *Relatively strong response rates (much higher than mail surveys) *One of quickest methods of data collection *More difficult than with personal interviews to determine that appropriate respondent is being interviewed *Less difficulty and cost in handling “call backs” than in-home interviewer *Allows easy use of computer support *Sequence of questions is easily changed *Difficult to establish representative sampling frame due to unlisted numbers *Cannot use visual aids *More difficult to establish rapport over the telephone than in person *Does not handle long interview well in most cases *Subject to some degree of interviewer bias (but much less than with personal interview)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages AdvantagesDisadvantages In-Home Personal Interview * Probably highest response rate *Best for getting response from specific, identified person *Allows use of any type of question/ questionnaire *Sequencing of questions is easily changed *Allows probing of open-ended questions *Allows clarification of ambiguous questions *Permits easy use of visuals *Generally narrow distribution *Interviewer supervision and control difficult to maintain *Often difficult to identify individuals to include in sampling frame *Generally most expensive method of administration *Costly to revisit “not-at-homes” *Relatively slow method of administration *Subject to interviewer bias Mall Intercept Same Advantages as In-Home Interview, PLUS: * Relatively short project completion time *Less expensive than in-home interview *Much better interviewer supervision and control than in-home interview * Sample control is more difficult than with in- home personal interview in terms of identifying a representative sample *Interviews typically need to be shorter than in- home interview

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages and Disadvantages AdvantagesDisadvantages Internet * Very fast turnaround * Very inexpensive *Fairly versatile (e.g., can show print ads, beauty shots of products, can play music, video, in addition to survey) *Survey responses automatically entered into a data file *International sample possible *Sample is still not “representative” of general consumer markets (U.S. or worldwide) *Response rates are dropping as novelty declines *Respondents may have concerns with privacy

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Primary Data: Overview Types of Primary Data: Demographic / Socioeconomic Characteristics Psychological / Lifestyle Characteristics Attitudes / Opinions Awareness / Knowledge Intentions Motivation Behavior Qualities of Primary Data: Versatility Business logistics: speed and cost Data quality: objectivity and accuracy Two Classes of Primary Data Observation Communication

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Comparing Methods of Administering Questionnaires

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages (+) and Disadvantages (-) Personal Interview (At Home or Mall) Sampling control: +High response rates; best for getting response from specific, identified person -Generally narrow distribution, difficult to identify sampling frame Information control: +Allows use of any type of question; sequencing of questions is easily changed; allows probing of open-ended questions; allows clarification of ambiguous questions; permits easy use of visuals and other sensory stimuli, mall interview needs to be shorter than at-homes -Subject to interviewer bias, interviewer supervision difficult to maintain (though easier in mall than at-homes) Administrative control: - Generally most expensive method (at-homes even more than mall); relatively slow (though mall is quicker)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Written Formats (Mail, Fax, Web, ) Sampling control: +May be only method able to reach certain respondents; sampling frame easily developed when mailing lists are available; wide distribution possible -Low response rates; little control in securing response from specific individual; cannot control respondent=s speed of survey completion Information control: +Not subject to interviewer bias; respondents work at their own pace; ensures anonymity; best for personal, sensitive questions -Researcher cannot explain ambiguous questions; does not allow probing; difficult to change sequence of questions; respondents can view entire questionnaire as they respond Administrative control: +Generally least expensive -Long response time for mail, very short for Transparency 7.8 Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages (+) and Disadvantages (-)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Telephone Sampling control: +Relatively strong response rates; wide distribution possible -Difficult to establish representative sampling frame due to unlisted numbers Information control: +Less interviewer bias than in person, and interviewer supervision is stronger; sequence of questions is easily changed -Cannot use visual aids; more difficult to establish rapport over the phone than in person Administrative control: +Relatively low cost; quick turnaround; little difficulty and cost in handling call- backs; allows easy use of computer support -Interview must be brief Primary Communication Methods of Data Collection: Advantages (+) and Disadvantages (-)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + LIMITED HIGHLY VERSATILE phone web mail fax personal (e.g., mall, home) SLOW FAST TURN- AROUND phone web mail personal fax HI COST LOW COST phone web mail personal fax Methods of Survey Administration Compared

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Chapter 9 Collecting primary data through observation

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Observation as a data collection method ‘Observation involves the systematic observation, recording, description analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour’ Saunders et al. (2009)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Types of observation The two main types Participant observation – emphasises the discovery of meaning attached to actions (qualitative) Structured observation – is concerned with frequency of actions (quantitative)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Participant observation (1) Definition ‘Where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling them to not merely observe what is happening but also feeling it’ Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Participant Observation

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Data Generated by Participant Observation

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Choice of participant observer role Determining factors Purpose of the research and time available Degree of suitability felt by the researcher Organisational access Ethical considerations

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Data collection and analysis (3) Points to consider Threats to validity The perspective of the subject - not the researcher Advantages and disadvantages of participant observation Saunders et al. (2009)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Advantages It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular social situation. It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant social process. It is particularly useful for researchers working within their own organization. Some participant observation affords the opportunity for the researcher to the experience ‘for real’ the emotions of those who are being researched. Virtually all data collected are useful.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Disadvantages It can be very time consuming. It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researchers. They can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher. The closeness of the researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant observer bias. The participant observer role is a very demanding one, to which not all researchers will be suited Access to organizations may be difficult. Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (1) Points to consider Structured observation is systematic and aims to establish straightforward facts Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens the scope of participant observation Advantages and disadvantages of structured observation Saunders et al. (2009)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (1)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (2) Data collection and analysis Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule Designing your own coding schedule Combining both types of schedule Use of simple (manual) or complex (computer) methods of analysis

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (2)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (2)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (2)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Structured observation (3) Threats to validity and reliability Subject error Time error Observer effects and strategies to overcome this – habituation and minimal interaction Robson (2002)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Internet Mediated Observation Online Communities Online Social Networks Blogs Etc Participant Observation

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Videography Micro-cameras Video Recording Challenges? Data Analysis

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Summary: Chapter 9 Participant observation is used in a wide range of social settings Participant observation means adopting a number of potential roles Roles are differentiated according to the degree of concealed identity and participation in events adopted by the researcher

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Summary: Chapter 9 The aim of participant observation is to develop theory and avoid mere story telling Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterised by high levels of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis The main threats to reliability and validity are subject error, time error and observer effects

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Chapter 10 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Research interviews Definition ‘An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people’ Kahn and Cannell (1957) Types of interview used in research Semi-structuredStructured In-depth Group Saunders et al. (2009)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Research purpose and strategy (1) Forms of interview Saunders et al. (2009) Figure 10.1 Forms of interview

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Types of interview Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered questionnaires. Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Continued On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations. Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in which you are interested. refer to these as in-depth interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Continued So that this type of interaction is sometimes called ‘nondirective’. It has been labeled as informant interview since it is the interviewees perceptions that guide the conduct of the interview. In comparison, a participant (or respondent) interview is one where the interviewer directs the interview and the interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher. We can also differentiate between types of interview related to the nature of interaction between the researcher and those who participate in this process. Interview may be conducted one to one basis, between you and single participant(face to face)(telephone)(internet) (intranet)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Continued There may be other situation where you conduct a number of participants to explore an aspect of your research through a group of discussion that you facilitate.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interview and type of research In an exploratory research study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to find out what is happening and to seek new insight. Semi stretchered interviews may be used in relation to an exploratory study. In descriptive studies structured interviews can be used as a means to identify general patterns. In an explanatory study, semi structured interviews can be used in order to understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study, structured interview may also be used in relation to an explanatory study, in statistical sense.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Research purpose and strategy (2) Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories Saunders et al. (2009) Table 10.1 Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Non-standardised (qualitative) interviews Four key aspects Purpose of the research Significance of establishing personal contact Nature of the data collection questions Time required and completeness of process

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Data quality (1) Issues to consider Reliability Forms of bias Validity and generalisability

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Data quality (2) The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps ‘prior planning prevents poor performance’ Saunders et al. (2009)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interview preparation (1) Associated issues Interviewer’s level of knowledge Level of information supplied to interviewees Creating an interview guide Appropriateness of location

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interview preparation (2) Associated issues Researcher’s appearance – dress code Shaping the interview - opening comments Approach to questioning – clarity and reducing bias Use of critical incident technique

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interview preparation (3) Associated issues Appropriate interviewer behaviour- verbal and non- verbal Attentive listening skills and testing understanding Approaches to data recording - notes and tape- recording Cultural differences and bias

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interviewing competence There are several areas where you need to develop and demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi structured and in-depth research interview. These areas are: Opening the interview; Using appropriate language; Questioning; Listening; Testing and summarizing understanding; Recording and dealing with difficult participants; recording data.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interview preparation (4) Checklist Box Complete the Checklist in Box to help you prepare for your semi-structured or in-depth interview Saunders et al. (2009)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interviewing competence (1) Approaches to questioning Open questions Probing questions Specific and closed questions

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Open questions The use of open question will allow participants to define and describe the situation or event. An open is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain facts. It encourages the interviewee to reply as they wish. An open question is likely to start with or include, one of the following words: ‘what’, or ‘how’, or ‘why’,.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Propping questions Can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Specific and closed questions These types of questions are simpler to those used in structured interviews. They can be used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact or opinion.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interviewing competence (2) Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording interviews Saunders et al. (2009) Table 10.3 Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording the interview

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interviewing competence (3) Other issues to consider Dealing with difficult participants –Table 10.2 Managing resources – logistics and time Obtaining participants’ permission for interview records (written and taped)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interviewing competence (4) Additional forms of interviews: Group interviews Focus groups Telephone interviews Internet and intra-net mediated interviews

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Interviewing competence (5) Forms of electronic interviews Saunders et al. (2009) Figure 10.2 Forms of electronic interviews

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Data Collection Revealed Preference (RP) Data Trip or activity diaries GPS tracking devices Handset mobile applications – Smartphone sensors Sensors embedded at the vehicle (smart bikes i.e. Copenhagen wheel)

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + RP Data Utilizing GPS information: correct inconsistencies reported at the travel diaries identify route choice, speed, travel time, delays at traffic lights, stops, etc. correct network characteristics (Ben-Akiva et al., 2013; Polydoropoulou et al., 2013) 61

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + SP Experiments – Mode Choice * * Kamargianni and Polydoropoulou, 2013 Weather Conditions

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Experiments Laboratory experiments Multimodal and multipurpose Bicycle/Pedestrian simulators Eye-catching experiments Real–life experiments: Before and after behavior & Expected vs. Experienced Happiness Public transportation Park and Ride E-bikes Study

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Next Generation Travel Surveys Travel Surveys meet new Technologies Smartphones are Everywhere and Powerful Future Mobility Surveys (FMS) Participants use their own devices User Perspective – The application is: User friendly Utilize few resources Transparent to the user Device Perspective – The application: Log the location Log Accelerometer data Give the ability to report an issue to the Surveyor or other Party Log the participant’s mood 64

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove : An Integrated Methodology for Measuring Activities, Travel Satisfaction and Social Interaction Effects Travel Surveys meet new Technologies Smartphones adoption rate is very high 65

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Framework 66

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove App: Personal trip logger (phone sensor data) Performs Initial inference (modes, location) Mood Recording Non-intrusive and Easy to use Low battery consumption UMove Web: Consolidation of Data from UMove App and Twitter Validation of Activity Travel Data UMove Main Components 67

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove App: Login and Account Creation 68

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove App: Home Window The UMOVE App home window) allows the user to: observe the current trip distance; switch UMOVE tracking on and off; access the user’s My Trips window; access the Report Issue window; access the Contact Us window; and/or logout. 69

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove App: My Trips In My Trips window users will be able to: view a list of the trips performed on a specific date; navigate back-and-forth to different dates by using the arrows or search for specific dates on a calendar by pressing the search button; view the Trip Map window for a specific trip by pressing the trip entry in the trip list; and/or go back to the home window by pressing the tracking button. Validate activities accessing My Activities functionality Search for trips on specific dates. 70

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove App: Report an Issue Users are able to report issues related to their trip or their experiences with UMOVE via the Report Issue feature. In this feature users will be able to provide the following issue information: Subject location (optional) provide an issue description (optional); use the Camera to take a picture (optional); and/or Use a picture from the picture gallery (optional). 71

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMOVE App: Notifications 19/7/ If notifications are allowed (see Figure 3-2and Figure 3-3 for examples in the iOS and Android versions), UMOVE App will remind users to: record their mood at the start of trips; and validate their activities in UMOVE web.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove App: Mood Selection 73

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web: Login 74 UMOVE Web - Login Page Resend Credentials

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web: Account Creation 75

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web Pages After successful login users gain access to the following UMOVE pages: My Activities My Calendar Survey My Account Logout 76

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web (2) 77

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + My Activities 19/7/

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web – Validate Activity 79 Validation: Location (Drag/Drop) Arrival Date and Time Mode (see next slide) Accompanying Persons Mood Type of Activity Performed Mood during the Activity Departure Date and Time

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web – Validate Activity 80

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web – Add/Remove Activity 81 Users are able to add new activity remove activity Once validated activities are saved centrally

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web: My Calendar 82

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web: Survey bin/ciwweb.pl?hid_studyname=UMoveSurveyNew&hid_pagenum=0 83

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web: My Account 84

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + UMove Web: Logout 85

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Pilot test the UMOVE app in Athens(Greece) and Haifa (Israel) Promotion: 86 Pilot Tests I & II

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. + Data Collection Dynamic Data: Consecutive panels Understand heterogeneous behavior- Distributed Values of Time Group decision making Crowdsourcing and social media Augmented reality

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc Big Data collection, storage, usage, and visualization Growing concerns of privacy and personal data security: Smartphone user data manipulation Pictures and videos in public spaces Activity monitoring devices and apps Better understanding of the potential and limitations Data Collection

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Summary: Chapter 10 Use of non-standard (qualitative) interviews should generate rich and detailed data Different types of interview are useful for different research purposes Qualitative interviews are generally categorised as in-depth (structured) and semi-structured Research design may incorporate more than one type of interview

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright Harcourt, Inc. Summary: Chapter 10 Using qualitative interviews is related to the research strategy and data collection questions Establishing personal contact with subjects and the length of time required are significant factors Data quality issues, interviewer competence and resource management are important considerations Face-to-face (individual, group and focus group) and electronic interviews can all be advantageous