Forms of Social Organization (Elman Service, 1962) Pre-State small-scale and kin-based “simple” societies: bands and tribes: small-sized (10s to 100s autonomous social groupings, egalitarian, division of labor and status based on age, sex, and personal characteristics or achievements); Chiefdoms: medium-sized social formations (1000s to 10,000s), ranked kin-groups based on hereditary status (incipient classes), regionally- organized, integrated (non-autonomous) communities State (territory and class-based societies); Large societies divided into stratified social classes, with centralized government, a ruling elite class, able to levy taxes (tribute), amass a standing army, and enforce law.

The Rise of Social Inequality and Complexity “Rank Revolution” What led to the emergence of social stratification (rise of social classes) and complexity (regional integration and institutional differentiation within communities) How were personal and social autonomy and egalitarian social structures transformed into societies in which people were subordinate to others based on birth and social position, at both community and regional levels

Chiefdoms simple “two-tiered” hierarchy: people are either elite or commoner, in part related to hereditary (incipient classes); generally based on semi-intensive economies; various communities integrated into regional society, typically showing a “bi-modal” or rank-ordered settlement pattern: one or a few large (first-order) settlements, with smaller (second-and third-order) satellite settlements linked to these; formal, even full-time specialists: religious specialists, warriors, chiefs, artisans;

Chiefdoms in the Pacific Chapter 8: pp (begin with “The Islands of Southeast Asia and Oceania” end with “Seaborne Trade in SE Asia”

Migrations of early Humans into Island SE Asia and Melanesia

New Guinea transition to farming

Kuk Swamp, New Guinea Evidence for transition to agriculture from early hunter-gatherer societies forest clearing and possible water management (diversion), ca BC Early Holocene domestication of taro and banana, together with some varieties of sugarcane and yams More organized agricultural works, including mounding for cultivation by ca BC and grid-like ditching by 2000 BC, with evidence for more extensive forest clearing related to banana and taro cultivation Recent development of more complex systems related to introduction of sweet potato (the “Ipomean revolution”); food for pigs? Foundation for surplus production for exchange rituals in pigs and shells (called “Big-man” systems)

Early “Vegeculture” In the 1950s, geographer Carl Sauer suggested that early agriculture occurred first in tropical forest regions of SE Asia Based on vegeculture, growing not by seeds by plant cuttings, of tropical forest plants, most notably root crops Happened along major rivers first, where early settled villages had emerged based on highly productive exploitation of rich aquatic resources

Peter Bellwood The Austronesians

British-American English

Taiwan Earliest Austronesians Dabenkeng culture ( BC) Nanguanli site, waterlogged site dating to BC, which yielded cord-marked, red-slipped ceramics, clay spindle whorls, shell knives, carbonized rice and foxtail millet From BC Austronesians spread from Taiwan through Philippines, eastern Indonesia, Western Pacific (Micronesia and Island Melanesia), and western Polynesia (Tonga and Samoa) Red-slipped and often cordmarked pottery; outside of Taiwan developed into circle and punctate stamped pottery in the Philippines, Micronesia, and Lapita sites in Melanesia

Beinan Large village site (40 ha) in Taiwan with 50 dry-stone houses, 1500 burials, dating to BC (post-dates cord-marked pottery) Today, Austronesians (Formosans) make up about 1% of island

Settlement pauses relate to development of watercraft, notaby outrigger canoes (pause 1) by 2000 BC and “double canoe” in Polynesia (pause 2) 1500 BC BC 500 BC-AD 1 AD

Outrigger canoe

Double canoe

Lapita Colonization in Melanesia, BC (Proto-Oceanic Austronesian) “Tattooed pottery” Pigs, chickens, yams, dog, taro carried on sailing vessels

Lapita settlements, with sand and crushed shell tempered and decorated pottery, are rich in diverse artifacts and cultural features, like ovens, hearths, and postholes, tied to maritime and horticultural economy, which included pigs, fowl, and dogs. Sites average 1 ha (2.5 acres) with some larger sites (7-8 ha; acres). In malaria-free regions, beyond Vanuatu, populations grew rapidly.

Groundstone Bone, and Shell Tools Tikis

Tapa (bark cloth)

Polynesian Colonization Eastern Polynesia colonized ca. AD (according to Bellwood’s chapter) AD BC – AD 1 APS

Ancient Polynesian Society The chiefdom was first clearly defined in Polynesia (Sahlins 1958; Service 1962) Societies based not only on reciprocity, but on redistribution economies: strategic resources were concentrated in the hands of a few (chiefs) who then redistributed these to lower ranking community members APS has its roots in earlier forms of hierarchical social organization in Lapita societies, and later diversified as it spread throughout Polynesia In Polynesia, chiefdoms developed complex forms of terrace fields, canal irrigation fields, and other semi- intensive forms of food production (fish ponds, pond fields), marked warfare and conquest, monumental architecture, and, in some cases (Hawaii, Tonga), highly stratified social organization

The Ramage or Conical Clan Internally ranked, or hierarchical, social organization based on primogeniture Tendency to “ramify,” that is subordinate lineages split off main group to found new communities

Over time this process results in long-distance migrations (island-hopping) that helps explain colonization of Polynesia by Austronesians

Trade, Interaction, Alliance Shell necklace, a component of the famous Kula trade ring in the Trobriands Trobriand (Melanesia) kula trading vessel The Tui Tonga, the sacred ruler of the 160+ island polity of Tonga (western Polynesia), for instance, engaged in alliance marriages with daughters of ruling lineages from Samoa and Fiji, many hundreds of miles away.

Polynesian ocean map The Navigators

Colonization: Western Polynesia (Lapita), BC, and eastern Polynesia, AD 700 to 1250

Diversification: Population, ecology, and social structure (status rivalry) As colonizing populations adapted to the unique conditions of different islands, APS groups became increasingly diversified and distinctive Marshall Sahlins (1958) proposed that differences in environment and food production strategies were critical to divergent cultural development through Polynesia (big, high islands supported larger groups, with more Intensive economies and small, low islands less)

High islands, which provided the richest environments for human exploitation, are where the largest and most complex of the Polynesian chiefdoms emerged; Atolls were at the opposite extreme

Bora

Fish Weirs Marae (general term for shrine/temple in Polynesia) Stone Houses

Langi: coral slabbed earthen burial mound for Tongan nobles Mound for Tui Tonga, sacred ruler of Tongan empire (160 islands), at Tongatapu, the small sacred capital where the Tui Tonga and related nobles lived

Latte, stone pillars (Marianas, Micronesia) Yap, stone “money” The stones were made from imported limestone (most from Palau, 250 miles SW). Very rare and valuable. Expeditions to get stones led by chiefs with select a group of brave and involved great peril, even death.

Nan Madol, Pohnpei (Caroline Islands, Micronesia) Built from large basalt blocks, some weighing as much as fifty tons on an ancient coral reef, with hundreds of artificial structures, intersected by manmade canals.

Nan Madol

Easter Island (Rapa Nui) first settled ca. AD 900 (or earlier) Moai (giant tikis) Line of maoi on large platform (ahu)

Tallest 11.5 m (38 ft); built ca. AD

Easter Island Contact with South America?

Competition, Warfare, Deforestation, and Societal Collapse Many moai toppled during period of intense warfare “By the time Europeans discovered the island in 18 th century it had been rendered almost treeless, the carving of statues had apparently ceased, and the inhabitants were described as living a fairly wretched existence”

Written language (rongo-rongo)

First small colonist chiefdoms (AD 700 or earlier); rapid population growth from AD , led to development of larger, regionally integrated, and later island wide paramount chiefdoms.

Originally it was argued that rich wet areas of Hawai’i gave rise to largest, most powerful chiefdoms, but Patrick Kirch (1994) argued that in Hawai’i (and Futuna) the most aggressive and expansive chiefdoms originated in the risk- dominated (dry) areas, who came to dominate those societies in areas of fertile alluvial soils suitable for irrigated taro cultivation

Hawai’i Pie-shaped distribution of territories (ahupua’a), corresponding to ecological as well as social differences. Hawaiians developed sophisticated technology to support their large population, as well as costly chiefly and priestly ritual. pondfields

Puukohola-heiau Hale-o-pi-ilani-heiau Hawai’i became the largest and most complex of the Polynesia chiefdoms after, Chief Kamehameha I consolidated by force the five island polities into a single multi-island polity in early 19th century WAS IT A STATE?

What is a City? Definitions Vary, and some quite small. “In Germany as a whole in the late middle ages [ ], 3,000 places were reckoned to have been granted the status of cities; their average population was no more than 400 individuals” (Braudel 1985:482) Among largest, Dresden about 2500

Endeavor ( ) Captain James Cook, died in 1779, on his third voyage in conflict with Hawaiians

The Fleet of Otaheite, Tahiti, 1774

New Zealand, colonized AD 1250 Maori pa (fortified earthwork enclosures)

Abel Tasman encounters Maori in 1642

New Zealand is often contrasted with Hawaii, in terms of social developments toward large, populous chiefdoms, and aggressive warfare, without marked social stratification Maori warrior