G ENDER AND R ELIGIOSITY

There are clear gender differences in religious beliefs and participation. The priesthoods of most religions are male but more women participate in religious activities. Miller and Hoffman found that women had greater interest in religion and a stronger commitment and also attended church more. Bruce- twice as many women are involved in sects. Heelas and Woodhead- 80% of participants in the holistic milieu were female. Differences may be connected to how men and women see God. GodSinEvilThe DevilLife after death Women84%72%76%42%57% Men75%66%58%32%39%

R EASON FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES - S OCIALISATION AND GENDER ROLE Miller and Hoffman- women are more religious because they are socialised to be more passive and caring. These are qualities valued by religions. Men who also have these qualities are also more likely to be religious. Women are more likely to work part time or be full time carers so they have more time to participate in religious activities. Greeley- taking care of family members increases women's religiosity as it involves responsibility for their ‘ultimate’ welfare as well as everyday needs.

Davie- argues women’s closer proximity to births and deaths brings them closer to ‘ultimate’ questions of the meaning of life that religion is concerned with.

W OMEN AND THE N EW A GE As women are often associated with nature and the healing role, they may be more attracted to the new age movement. E.g. Heelas and Woodhead found 80% of participants in the holistic milieu were female. This is because these movements often celebrate the natural, and healing, giving the women a higher status and a sense of self-worth. Bruce argues that women’s experiences of child-rearing make them less aggressive and less goal orientated and more cooperative and caring. Men wish to achieve and women wish to feel. This fits the expressive emphasis of the New Age.

Women may also be attracted to the new age because it emphasises the importance of being ‘authentic’ rather than acting out roles. Women may be more attracted to this as they see their ascribed role as restrictive. Brown argues that the New Age ‘self’ religions appeal to women’s wish for autonomy and attract women recruits. On the other hand some may be attracted to fundamentalism because of the certainties of a traditional gender role that it prescribes for them.

Women experience the ‘stained glass ceiling’ in religion. This is where religion prevents a woman from reaching the higher status jobs in a church. Walby sees religion to promote the ideology of the family, for example the Islamic fundamentalism largely confines a woman to the private sphere.

C OMPENSATION FOR DEPRIVATION Glock and Stark and Stark and Bainbridge argue that people may participate in religion because of the compensators for social, organismic and ethical deprivation that it offers. Glock and Stark argue these forms of deprivation are all more common amongst women: Organismic Deprivation-stems from physical and mental health problems. Women are more likely to suffer ill health and seek healing through religion. Ethical Deprivation- Women tend to be more morally conservative. They are more likely to regard the world as being in moral decline and be attracted to sects that share the morally conservative view. Social Deprivation- Women are more likely to be poor. This could explain why there are more women than men in sects.

R ECENT T RENDS Women are now leaving the church faster than men. Brierley suggests this is because of the pressure of the home, family and work are very intense. Brown- Since the 1960s women have begun to reject traditional subordinate gender roles. Christianity was bound up with these traditional roles so women’s rejection of subordination has led them to reject traditional religion at the same time.