Military Force and Terrorism International Relations 9/e Goldstein and Pevehouse Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010 CHAPTER SIX

Conventional Forces State leaders involved in a conflict can use various kinds of leverage to reach a more favorable outcome: –Nonviolent levers – foreign aid, economic sanctions, personal diplomacy, etc. –Violent levers – violent actions such as sending out armies, suicide bombers, or missiles Costly to the sender and receiver and tend to be a last resort Declining in use over time Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Conventional Forces Most states, however, still devote vast resources to military capabilities. –Defending territories –Deter attack –Compel other states to behave certain ways by threatening an attack –Humanitarian assistance for disasters –Surveillance of drug trafficking –Repression of political dissent Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Conventional Forces Great powers continue to dominate the makeup of world military forces. Military capabilities divide into three types: – conventional forces –irregular forces –weapons of mass destruction Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Figure 6.1 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Types of Forces Most wars involve a struggle to control territory. –The fundamental purpose of conventional forces is to take, hold, or defend territory. Armies –Infantry: foot soldiers who use assault rifles and other light weapons –Conventional armed forces vs. irregular forces in open battle – Ex. Somalia Counter-insurgency –Includes programs to “win the hearts and minds” of populations so they stop sheltering the guerrillas. –Guerrillas often use landmines, which continue to harm populations even after the war is over. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Types of Forces Navies –Adapted primarily to control passage through the seas and to attack land near coastlines new mission – responding to piracy –Aircraft carries – instruments of power projections –Surface ships –Marines Air Forces –Strategic bombing of land or sea targets, close air support, interception of other aircraft, reconnaissance, and airlift –Aerial bombing –Expense Logistics and intelligence –Global reach capabilities –Space forces GPS –NSA –Budgets of U.S. intelligence agencies: $44 billion (2005) Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Table 6.2 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Evolving Technologies The resort to force in international conflicts now has more profound costs and consequences than in the past, causing massive destruction and economic ruin. Military engagements now occur across greater standoff distances between opposing forces. –Missiles Electronic warfare/information warfare Stealth technology Cyberwar Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Terrorism U.S. State Department listed 43 foreign terrorist organizations in 2008 Terrorism: Political violence that targets civilians deliberately and indiscriminately –But one person’s freedom fighter is another’s terrorist. –Shadowy world of faceless enemies and irregular tactics marked by extreme brutality –Purpose: to demoralize a civilian population in order to use its discontent as leverage on national governments or other parties to a conflict. –Primary effect is psychological Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Terrorism Classic case versus the World Trade Center bombing –Level of damage Persistence of terrorism –Questions as to effectiveness Terrorists are more willing than states are to violate the norms of the international system –Do not have a stake in that system –Conversely, when a political group gains some power or legitimacy, its use of terrorism usually diminishes. Repression by the state Arguments regarding the definition of terrorism State sponsored terrorism –Use of terrorist groups by states usually under control of the state’s intelligence agency to achieve political aims. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Weapons of Mass Destruction Comprise three general types: nuclear, chemical, and biological –Enormously lethal; no discrimination in whom they kill Serve different purposes than conventional weapons: –Deter attack by giving state leaders the means to influence great pain against a would-be conqueror or destroyer –Symbolic equalizer for middle powers –For terrorists, their purpose is to kill a great many people. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Nuclear Weapons Fission weapons –Two elements can be split or fissioned: uranium-235 and plutonium –Obstacle often is finding fissionable material –Plutonium bomb is more difficult to build than a uranium one Fusion weapons –Extremely expensive and technically demanding –No splitting of atoms, but rather fusing two together to make one larger one, releasing energy Heat and radiation and nuclear fallout EMP- electromagnetic pulse –Disrupt and destroy electronic equipment Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Ballistic Missiles and Other Delivery Systems Delivery systems for getting nuclear weapons to their targets are the basis of states’ nuclear arsenals and strategies. Cold War: nuclear delivery systems –Strategic – hit enemy’s homeland –Tactical – battlefield use Main strategic delivery vehicles –Ballistic missiles Difficult to defend against Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) Short-range ballistic missiles Cruise missiles –Missile Technology Control Regime Industrialized states try to limit the flow of missile- relevant technologies to states in the global South. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Chemical and Biological Weapons A chemical weapon releases chemicals that disable and kill people. –Range from tear gas to nerve gas –Indiscriminate about whom they kill –Use has been rare –Chemical Weapons Convention (1992) Biological weapons –Resemble chemical weapons, except they use microorganisms or biologically derived toxins. –Biological Weapons Convention (1972) Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Proliferation The spread of weapons of mass destruction into the hands of more actors Two sides to the proliferation argument –Realists – not worried –Others put less faith in the rationality of state leaders and are very concerned. Includes most of the great powers; erosion of power relative to middle powers Selling of technology with proliferation potential Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Proliferation Arms races in regional conflicts and rivalries Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) –UN agency based in Vienna charged with inspecting the nuclear power industry in member states to prevent secret military diversions of nuclear materials At present, nuclear states are the “big five,” plus Israel, India and Pakistan, and North Korea. A number of middle powers and two great powers (Japan and Germany) have the potential to make nuclear weapons but have chosen not to do so. –Brazil and Argentina – civilian governments replaced military ones and moved away from nuclear weapons Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Nuclear Strategy and Arms Control Nuclear strategy refers to: –decisions about how many nuclear weapons to deploy –what delivery systems to put them on –what policies to adopt regarding the circumstances in which they should be used Deterrence –Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Nuclear Strategy and Arms Control Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) Antiballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty (1972) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) Efforts to control conventional arms through treaties has had little success. Weapons of mass destruction: expensive and difficult to build. This is one reason many states do not acquire them. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

States and Militaries: Military Economies Given the range of military capabilities available to states (at various costs), how much and what types should state leaders choose to acquire? Economics of military spending is not so favorable. –Long run: allocating economic resources for military purposes deprives the rest of the economy and reduces its growth. –Tradeoff: increasing their available military leverage and increasing their overall economic health Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

States and Militaries: Military Economies Burden Sharing and Economic conversion Arms imports by states in the global South –Make up more than half of all arms sales –Of all international arms exports, a third come from the United States, with Russia and Britain ranked next. –Worldwide, these three countries and France together account for three-quarters of international arms sales. –Globally, arms sales have declined in the post-Cold War era. Different missions require different forces. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Control of Military Forces Coordination of many individuals performing many different military functions in many locations requires command –Chain of command –Value of military hierarchy –Discipline –Training –Group solidarity –Logistical support –Role of accurate information/intelligence Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Control of Military Forces Military governments –Most common in poor countries, where the military may be the only large modern institution in the country. –Coup d’etat is the seizure of political power by domestic military forces – a change of political power outside the state’s constitutional order. Outcome difficult to predict Difficulty gaining popular legitimacy Civilian-military relations Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

Control of Military Forces NATO forces operate under strong civilian control. Covert operations –Can get out of control of a government –Secret wars –Role of oversight and greater scrutiny States face complex choices regarding the configuration of their military forces in the post Cold War era. World order is evolving even as military technologies do. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010