1 Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences February 5 Lecture 45

2 Office Hour Invitations February 7, 11:30-2:30, Kenny

A little R&R …. (Review and Reflect) 3

4 Education 1. What factors contribute to sex differences in educational attainment? (continued) 3. What sex differences in education have been found in other countries? 2. Are there advantages associated with same-sex schooling?

5 By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 3. discuss cultural variation in access to education for females and males. 1. review factors that may account for sex differences in educational attainment. 2. identify the benefits of same-sex vs. mixed-sex schooling.

6  School environments that reward characteristics associated with the female gender role and punish characteristics associated with the male gender role. More boys than girls receive referrals to special education services: What factors contribute to sex differences in educational attainment? (continued)

Percent Boys Teacher referral to learning disabled program (Mirkin, 1982)80 Learning-disabled students (Lerner, 1993)72 Enrolled in learning-disabled program (K-12; Mellard & Byrne, 1993)75 Teacher referral to learning disabled program (Flynn & Rahbar, 1994)66 Diagnosed with reading disorder (APA, 1995)60-80 “Eligible for special education” (Skarbrevik, 2002)70 Enrollment in special education classes (Benjamin, 2003)60-70 Diagnosed with attention deficit disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Berry, 1985; Abraham, 2010) Percent of Students Described as Needing Special Education Services Across Diverse Studies 7

8  Inadequate attention to gender inequity in teacher training.  Declining confidence in academic aptitude, interest in academic achievement, and engagement in school activities across time:

MalesFemales % Most or All of the Time: I got along well with teachers I did as little work as possible; I just wanted to get by I paid attention to the teacher I was interested in what I was learning in class I felt like an outsider or like I was left out of things at school I completed my homework on time % Agree or Strongly Agree: I thought that many of the things we were learning in class were useless I was treated with as much respect as other students in my class I had friends at school whom I could talk to about personal things I liked to participate in many school activities, for example clubs, sports, drama School was often a waste of time People at school were interested in what I had to say % 3 hours or Fewer: How many hours each week did you spend on homework outside class, during free periods and at home? Indicators of High School Engagement (Statistics Canada, 2004) 9

Percent of High School Seniors in School-Related Activities by Sex (Institute for Social Research, 2011) 10

11 Are there advantages associated with same-sex schooling? A review conducted by the US Department of Education (2005) suggests that single-sex schools (SS) offer modest benefits over mixed-sex schools (MS):

Outcome VariableFindings of Review General and subject-specific achievement testsSS > MS Meritorious scholarships attainedInsufficient data College GPAInsufficient data College graduation ratesSS = MS Post-secondary test scores (e.g., GRE, MCAT, LSAT)SS = MS Graduate school attendance ratesSS = MS Postgraduate licensure tests scoresInsufficient data Outcomes Variables for Single-Sex vs. Mixed-Sex Schools: Academic Achievement (US Department of Education, 2005) 12

Outcome VariableFindings of Review BullyingInsufficient data DelinquencyMS > SS High school drop outMS > SS Eating disordersSS > MS (females only; no data for males) Teenage pregnancyInsufficient data Self-esteemMS > SS (males only; SS = MS for females) Locus of controlSS > MS Educational and career aspirationsSS > MS Participation in school-related activitiesSS > MS Selection of non-traditional college majorSS > MS (females only; no data for males) Political activismSS > MS (females only; no data for males) Post-secondary unemploymentMS > SS Outcomes Variables for Single-Sex vs. Mixed-Sex Schools: Socioemotional Adjustment (US Department of Education, 2005) 13

Outcome VariableFindings of Review Leadership opportunitiesSS > MS Value placed on leadership and gradesSS > MS Student satisfactionMS > SS (high school), SS > MS (college) Parent satisfactionInsufficient data Teacher satisfactionInsufficient data Outcomes Variables for Single-Sex vs. Mixed-Sex Schools: School Culture (US Department of Education, 2005) 14

15 Billger (2009) contrasted SS and MS schooling controlling for demographic variables (e.g., income): No differences in academic achievement. SS schooling was associated with greater likelihood of selection of a non-traditional college major for females and males. Other indices of socioemotional adjustment and school culture were not examined. Particularly strong effects were found for African American males; SS schooling was associated with higher pay.

16 What sex differences in education have been found in other countries? Although females and males have similar access to education in industrialized countries, large sex differences in access exist in other countries.

17 It is estimated that, worldwide, 75 million fewer girls attend school than boys (Smith, 2006). The greatest sex disparities in educational access and attainment are found in the sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific (UNICEF, 2003; UN Children’s Fund, 2007).

Malala Yousafzai 18

19 By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 3. discuss cultural variation in access to education for females and males. 1. review factors that may account for sex differences in educational attainment. 2. identify the benefits of same-sex vs. mixed-sex schooling.