Psychology as a science  Psychology, like chemistry & biology, is an experimental science; therefore, it must be supported by evidence.  Scientists must be skeptical; for example: I own a Siamese fighting fish and want more. However; I remember what the salesperson said to me; not to buy more. Why?  Scientific critical thinkers try to support their ideas with evidence from controlled comparisons whenever possible, whether they design their own experiments or rely on the controlled observations of others.

Research/Psychological Methods  Why is Research Important? Because psychology is a science; therefore, claims must be doubted without scientific evidence.  Techniques: (Observation & Bias, Case Studies, Correlation, Surveys, Longitudinal/Cross- Sectional Studies, and Experiments)

The Steps of Scientific Research

Form A Question  Daily Experience – “What do fighting fish do to each other?  Psychological Theory – “What effects (if any) does watching TV violence have on viewers?”  Folklore/Common Knowledge – “Opposites Attract or Two Heads Are Better Than One.”

Hypothesis  Hypothesis is an EDUCATED guess; can be tested.  For example: I predict the fighting fish will attack one another. I make this EDUCATED guess based off the name of fish or salesperson telling me not to put them together; nonetheless, only a suspicion bc I’ve never seen it take place.

Replication  In order for the findings to be substantiated/confirmed, study must repeated; and it must produce the same results as before.

Research Methods 1. Naturalistic Observation 2. Surveys 3. Case Studies -Cross sectional & Longitudinal 4. Correlational Research 5. Experimental Method

Researcher Bias – Researcher selectively noticing evidence that supports their hypothesis. Participant Bias – Participant responds in different way knowing they are being observed. Hindsight Bias- “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. "I told you so!"  Monday morning quarterback  20/20 Hindsight  Overconfidence Bias-we tend to think we know more than we do. We tend to be more confident than correct. Bias Primary difference between personal and scientific explanations of behavior rests in the nature of acceptable evidence. Psychologists have learned to question observations based only on personal experience …

Six Methods of Observation

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic Observation (Aggression of Gorillas)  Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. It’s natural and settings are not artificial. ADVANTAGE: This research method helps reduce participant bias because participant doesn’t know they are being observed.

Disadvantage: Researchers Have No Control Over the Setting or the Events that Occur; Might Take a Long Time to Observe Aggressive Behavior

Read Pages Explain Advantages/Disadvantages of Surveying

Survey Examples  27% admitted to skipping to back of a new book to see how it ends  7% admitted to looking behind shower curtain when using a friend’s restroom; checking for cleanliness

Survey Examples  How do you squeeze toothpaste? 79% from top  How do you attack your corn? Circular, left to right, or right to left – 80% said circular  How do you eat an Oreo cookie? Dip in milk, twist off, eat whole; 17%, 18%, and 50%

Survey  Technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people  Usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them  Population: all the cases in a group from which the sample is drawn.  Random Sample: fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.  M&Ms samples *** In Class Activity****

Advantages of Surveying  Obtain large amounts of data rather quickly.  Relatively inexpensive to conduct.

Survey  Disadvantages  Wording Effects  Nonresponse Bias  Social Desirability Bias

Disadvantages of Surveying  Wording – “Are you interested in plants and trees?” – 77% yes vs. vs. “Are you interested in botany?” – 39% yes “Are you interested in botany?” – 39% yes

Disadvantages of Surveying  Wording – “Would you give Hillary Clinton a favorable rating?” vs. vs. “Would you give Hillary Rodham Clinton a favorable rating?” “Would you give Hillary Rodham Clinton a favorable rating?”

Disadvantages of Surveying  Social Desirability – Man ask woman: “Do you think abortion is a private matter that should be left to a women without any government intervention?” 64% of women agreed vs. vs. 84% agreement when a female asked another female the same question.

Survey Method

Samples Representing the Population Using M&Ms®

Population Sample If you want to apply what you have found in a sample to a population your sample must accurately represent the population.

The larger the sample, the more likely it will accurately represent the population. Let’s Try It!!!! As sample size increases, the stability of the estimate increases.

Round 1: Describing your Small Sample 1.Open your bag of M&Ms® (AKA: your small random sample) Don’t eat them!! 2.Divide the candies by color 3.Record the number of each color of candies found in your bag 4.Calculate the percentage of each color by dividing the number of each color by the total number of candies in your bag. # of red candies total # of candies = % of red

Round 2 Increasing your Sample Size Pooled Sample 1.Visit 5 different class members 2. As you visit each person: Record the number of each color of candies found in his/her bag Record the total number of candies found in his/her bag

How does your small sample compare to you larger sample? Did your percentages change?

The Official Point Estimates for Plain M&Ms® How does your small sample compare to the population?

How does your large sample compare to the population? The Official Point Estimates for Plain M&Ms®

The larger the sample, the more likely it will accurately represent the population.

Case Studies Technique In Which One Person Is Studied In Depth In The Hope Of Revealing Universal Principles

Advantages/Disa dvantages Provide insight into specific cases Provide insight into specific cases  May focus on isolated circumstances or events that can’t be replicated  Those interviewed may distort their past experiences  Doubt to the real effects bc two cases are not exactly alike

LEARNING TARGETS Know the purpose of each of the following research methods, as well their advantages and disadvantages. * CORRELATIONAL STUDIES * Experimental Methods

 Correlation DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION”

Correlation Studies Technique Used To Discover The Degree To Which Two Variables Are Related To Each Other

Advantages/Disa dvantages  Useful for making predictions  Does not reveal cause/effect  Just bc they are related does not mean one causes the other

Examples Stress and Health Achievement and Salaries (Occupational Success”

Correlational Studies are designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other………..they are useful for making predictions.

POSITIVE CORRELATION- POSITIVE CORRELATION- ^ ^ When one variable increases the other variable increases. ^ ^ When one variable increases the other variable increases. NEGATIVE CORRELATION- NEGATIVE CORRELATION- ^ l When one variable increases the other variable decreases.

Experimental Method  Researchers administer a treatment (new drug), then carefully observe the participants to determine how the treatment influences their behavior

Pros/Cons  Able to manipulate variables to determine cause and effect  Lab setting allows researcher to monitor and record all stages of experiement  Conditions created in the lab may not accurately reflect the conditions of real life  Could be subject to volunteer and researcher bias; and placebo effect