Final Exam Review, Pt. 3 Chapters 5 & 6

MEMORY The ability to store and retrieve information over time.

Information Processing Theory The mind is similar to a computer with input, processing, and output. Encoding Process of putting information into memory Storage Physical memory connections in the brain Retrieval Finding & taking information out of memory

Stages of Memory * Sensory memory * Brief storage of sensory information Iconic (visual) and Echoic (auditory) Short term memory (STM) * Small amounts of memory (5-9 bits) Less than 1 minute (20-30 sec) Working Memory – memory processes used in STM Long Term Memory * Storage of information, Unlimited capacity

Long Term Memory * A. Explicit (Declarative) Memory * Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered. 1. Episodic Memory * First hand experience (e.g. first date) 2. Semantic Memory * Facts and concepts (e.g. presidents) B. Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory * Experience (procedural) e.g. riding a bike, using a keyboard, swimming

Measuring Long Term Memory * Recall * Free recall – e.g. essay test (Discuss Thorndike’s theory) Cued Recall – e.g. fill in the blank questions (Thorndike proposed the law of _____). Recognition * Remembering previously seen information E.g. Multiple choice tests (Thorndike proposed the law of a. effect b. behavior c. consequences d. averages)

Causes of Forgetting Encoding failure Information not stored properly; can’t find it Decay Theory Applies to STM, not LTM Interference - similar memories (new or old) block retrieval of a memory Motivated Forgetting - Inability to encode or retrieve memories due to anxiety. Retrieval Failure * Inability to bring information into working memory

Using Memory Reconstructive Memory Memory is stored in pieces, and later put back together, using past & present information, emotions, beliefs, and bias – making memory inaccurate May contain untrue details or omit true items Schemas = Patterns of knowledge to help organize information.

Techniques to Improve Memory Chunking Remembering sets or groups. Increases capacity. Elaborative encoding Relate to another memory when encoding. Elaborative rehearsal – Organizing material in a meaningful way (Organization) Study by finding examples Build on concepts Relate to other knowledge Add meaning to definitions

More Ways to Improve Memory Mnemonic Devices * Memory aids, e.g., rhymes, songs, images, Method of Loci Overlearning * Keep studying Spacing * Distributed better than massed practice; don’t cram the night before test

Chapter 6 Lifespan Development

Research on Development Cross Sectional Research * Compares people of different ages at one time. Longitudinal Research * Follow the same individual or group over a long period of time Compare the variable of interest at different times

Prenatal Development 1. Germinal Period - Zygote (fertilized egg) Conception – Implantation; First days 2. Embryo weeks Major internal and external organs develop Amniotic sac, Placenta, Umbilical Cord 3. Fetus - 9 wks (less than one ounce) to birth (6-8 pounds); Growth and maturation of organs Senses and preferences

Problems During Prenatal Development Teratogens * Harmful material affecting development Drugs, alcohol, toxins, viruses, smoking Can affect physical, behavioral, and mental development. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - Physical abnormalities, retardation

Infancy and Early Childhood Contact Comfort * (Harlow) The infant’s need for physical contact Attachment * Infant’s need to be with caregiver Built on contact comfort Stranger Anxiety * Fear of unknown people; 5/6 mo, lessens at 12 mo Separation Anxiety * Fear of being left by caregiver; 8mo – 30mo.

Patterns of Attachment Strange Situation Test – Secure Attachment * 60%; explores room; cries when mother leaves; Goes to mother and is comforted when she returns Avoidant Attachment * don’t explore, avoid or ignore mother Disorganized (anxious)* No consistent method of coping

Theories of Gender Role Development Sex (biology) Gender (Culture) Gender Roles (Expectations) Social Learning Theory * Modeling; Media Reinforcement for gender appropriate behaviors Punishment when not appropriate behavior Gender Schema Theory * Gender is an important category Child seeks information Child develops expectations for gender roles.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development schemas frameworks of knowledge in long-term memory assimilation schemas allow understanding of new experiences or situations Situations or experiences accommodation schemas change in response to new experiences or situations

Piaget’s Stages StageAge RangeDescription Accomplishes Sensorimotor 0-2 years Experiences world Through senses Object Permanence Preoperational 2-7 yearsEgocentrism symbolic thought; mental images Theory of mind; Language Concrete Operational 7-11 years Logical Thinking; Real World Skills Conservation Formal Operational 11-adult Scientific reasoning Abstract logic

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 1.Trust v. Mistrust – Infant; hope, security 2.Autonomy v. Shame,Doubt – toddler; control, will 3.Initiative v. Guilt – 3-6y; assertiveness, purpose 4.Industry v. Inferiority – 6-12y; competence 5.Identity v. Role Confusion – teen; “Who am I?” 6.Intimacy v. Isolation – young adult; love 7.Generativity v. Stagnation – mid-adult; care and contributions to next generation 8.Ego Integrity v. Despair – old age; reflection on a good life

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles * Authoritarian * Strict rules, punish to control Kids unhappy, rebellious or depressed. Permissive* (2 kinds) a) Negligent – ignore kids: kids wild, confused, b) Loving –spoiled, lack boundaries Authoritative * Supportive; caring,respectful; clear expectations Kids more mature, successful

Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Development I.Level 1 – Preconventional Stage 1 – Punishment & Obedience Stage 2 – Rewards and Self Interest II.Level 2 – Conventional Stage 1 – Social Approval Stage 2 – Social Norms or Laws III.Level 3 – Post Conventional Stage 1 – Social Contracts Stage 2 – Universal Ethical Principles

Alzheimer’s Disease * One form of dementia Physical, mental, emotional, social effects Gradual deterioration of memory, personality Possible causes, inc. genetics, environment, diet, inflammation in brain. Amyloid plaques; tau proteins, tangles