Theory & Methods n Although there are no hard and fast rules about which methods are best, some have become associated more with a positivist approach (experiments, questionnaires) and some with social action approaches (participant observation)

Theory & Methods n In order to find out information about society sociologists use a range of research methods.

Theory & Methods n Primary Methods n Refers to information collected by the researcher n It did not exist before

Theory & Methods n Secondary Methods n Refers to data which already exists

Theory & Methods quantitative qualitative qualitattive Interpretivist Positivist

Quantitative data n Data in numerical form – statistics n Tables etc can be made of them n Helpful for looking at correlations/relationships between factors n e.g Durkheim and suicide rates in different countries n Often seen as more reliable data than qualitative

Qualitative Data n Data in word form n Harder to analyse than stats n Often seen as more valid data than quantitative

Validity n i.e how true a picture does the data give n how close to real life is it?

Reliability n Data is reliable when different researchers can repeat the research – n using the same methods and getting the same results

The Research Process 1.Choose a topic n At A2 you will carry out a research study of your own choosing. Which topic you choose will depend on a number of factors. Sociologists in their research will go through the same process

Values of researcher n What they see as important n e.g gender issues in education n their beliefs, interests etc

Value of society n What society sees as important n e.g. Feminists looking at increasing female crime etc

Funding n Practical issues are very important n How much money and where the money comes from often dictate what you can and can’t do n e.g. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation funds a lot of research n

Availability of data n How easy is it to get access to what you want to find out? n e.g some areas of crime

Theoretical position n Marxists will be keen to study areas of class conflict n Post-Modernists may look at the fragmentation of society etc

The Research Process n 2. Choosing Research Methods n Some methods are more suitable for particular types of research n Participant Observation may be more useful than a questionnaire when studying football hooliganism n But if the group is large a questionnaire may be more appropriate

The Research Process n 3. Theoretical Considerations n Positivists have tended to prefer methods which generate quantitative data n This is because they believe in a scientific study of society n Quantitative data is seen as more objective/unbiased n e.g Durkheim and suicide

The Research Process n 3. Theoretical Considerations n Interpretivists are more interested in in-depth studies. n These enable the researcher to see the action through the eyes of the participants n They prefer qualitative methods which give a deeper insight into the meanings behind human interaction n e.g. Atkinson and suicide

The Research Process n 3. Theoretical Considerations n However this does not mean that positivists will only use quantitative methods and vice versa!

Ethical Issues n Ethical issues are moral principles (beliefs about what is seen as right and wrong). These set down important guidelines for research – stating what you can and can’t do. n There are many grey areas in sociological research and consequently the British Sociological Association has set down key principles (other countries have done the same as have other subject areas - e.g. Psychology)

Ethical Issues n Informed Consent n Researchers should give the respondents full info about the research n The respondent then knows what they are agreeing to

Ethical Issues n Deception n This is where the respondents are kept from knowing the true purpose of the research n Sometimes this is done so that people will act naturally n e.g. covert observation n But it could be accused of spying

Ethical Issues n Confidentiality n Identity of participants should always be kept secret n Unless there are very good reasons for not doing so

Ethical Issues n Privacy n Although privacy should be respected n Most research intrudes into people’s lives n Although many give their consent – some participants find that the research has been too intrusive

Laboratory Experiments n Lab experiments are the backbone of scientific discovery n The psychologist Milgram used an experiment to discover how cruel humans can be to each other n Lab experiments are rare in sociology

Laboratory Experiments n Controlling variables n Labs help to isolate which variables affect something the most n E.g Plant growth can be affected by light, water and temp n In society it is almost impossible to control variables

Laboratory Experiments n Quantifying Results n Experiments usually give quantifiable data n They also allow replication – others can do the experiment and get the same results

Laboratory Experiments n Correlation and causation n Labs help to find which variables are linked and how. n Is water more important than light for a plant’s growth?

Laboratory Experiments n Lab experiments and people n Sociologists are sceptical of lab experiments involving people n Variables can’t be controlled n People will not act naturally n Society could be said to be the lab for sociologists

Field Experiments n Lack of control n Field experiments are conducted in normal everyday situations n e.g. in a classroom n Variables can’t be controlled and results can be seen as inexact

Field Experiments n The ‘Hawthorne Effect’ n This means that the respondents behave in a certain way because they are being observed n Comes from 1930’s Chicago study at the Hawthorne Electrical works n They found that respondents felt special because they were being watched.

Field Experiments n Experimenter Bias n People may respond differently to a male/female, old/young person etc n This is an unintended affect

Field Experiments n Ethical Issues n This questions whether it is right or wrong to experiment on individuals n It depends on the experiment but the BSA and BPA say that subjects should be told afterwards that they have taken part in an experiment

Surveys n Surveys involve systematic collection of data from a large number of people. They usually use questionnaires and/or interviews but because of their scale are more likely to use closed questions giving quantitative data.

Surveys n Response To Surveys n Response rates in surveys are typically low – unless it is something like the National Census where everybody is supposed to take part. n Reasons offered for non response include:  No time  No interest  Unable to contact (moved away)  Suspicious of research Maintaining privacy

Sampling n Sampling is extremely important in sociological research. Given the practical constraints of time and money, it is impossible to approach everyone on a given subject. n As a result, a smaller number is taken from the population, the important thing being that this small group is typical (representative) of the larger group.

Sampling n Sampling Unit n This is the individual sample taken from a population n e.g. a doctor from a list of doctors in Torbay

Sampling n Sampling Frame n This is the list of the population to be studied and from where the sample is chosen n e.g. List of doctors in Torbay n Electoral registers, school registers, telephone books etc are often used as sample frames

Types Of Sample n Random n Every member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected n This avoids bias in selection

Types Of Sample n Systematic n A variation on random where every nth person is chosen from a list n e.g. every 10 th person on a school register n Like with random sampling this does not guarantee representativeness

Types Of Sample n Stratified n Where the population is divided according to certain criteria e.g gender, age etc. n Then proportionate samples are taken from each grouping/strata

Types Of Sample n Quota n Where a certain quantity of individuals with certain characteristics are required n e.g. 40 women under 30yrs n often used in market research n not particularly representative

Types Of Sample n Snowball and Volunteer n Snowballing – researcher finds one individual who then puts them in touch with others n Often used when it is difficult to find a sample with the right characteristics n e.g criminals n Volunteers – where individuals are invited to take part in a study n e.g press advert n both the above are not very representative

n Spatial Sample n Sometimes it is useful to study the participants at one particular event i.e. a particular space. n People are usually chosen randomly from the particular population e.g. at a demonstration or a rock concert. They may be only there for a short period of time so this approach has to be quick and easy to execute.

n Panel Sample (Panel Study) n This is a technique for investigating change over time in the attitudes or opinions of a sample of people. n The group under study (the panel) have information collected about them over a period of months, years or decades. A common panel sample is an age cohort (people within a common age band). n A major problem with this type of sample is keeping it together over a period of time as people drop out for numerous reasons (choice, death, unable to trace etc.)

n Opportunity Sample n This involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to access n Eg passers by in the street, students sitting in the VI form centre etc n This is a non representative sample but is done for convenience (in fact it is sometimes called a convenience sample)