Chapter 1 History and Trends in the School Counseling Profession

Conditions Facilitating Growth of Counseling in U.S. Schools 1)Division of labor Task analysis resulted in greater specialization of task completion 2)Growth of technology Extending the reach of the individual, thereby reducing costs 3)The extension of vocational education The measurement of aptitude directed individuals to appropriate post-secondary training 4) Spread of modern forms of democracy People could choose what to do with their lives

The Beginning of School Counseling The beginning of the profession focused on vocational guidance – a need to point people in the right direction in terms of employment There were concerns about the quality and usability of the existing educational system There was a recognition that issues regarding individuals’ dignity and choices about their lives were important to consider

The Vocationalists Parsons, the “Father of Guidance,” emphasized a scientific approach to career decision making His Trait/Factor theory represented a 3-step approach to vocational guidance: (1)finding your aptitudes, strengths and interests (2)developing a knowledge of the career choice and conditions for success (3)understanding the relationship between the first two steps Williamson modified Parsons’ approach by encouraging empirical methods to identify employment opportunities consistent with individuals’ aptitude Through such efforts, the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) was developed, and outlined the training emphases for school counseling professionals (Thompson, 2012) This organization also helped with the development of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), which eventually became the American Counseling Association (ACA)

The Humanists Rogers' concept of unconditional positive regard and his non-directive, client-centered approach has become a foundational competency for counselors In particular, Rogers’ theoretical premise of the self determination of the client was extended by school counselors to students This resulted in school counselors seeing themselves as child and adolescent specialists

The Integrators Wellman's identification of the school counseling profession's focus upon the three domains of educational, career, and social development helped to systematize school counseling Gysbers and Myrick advocated for a comprehensive, standards-based, developmental school counseling curriculum in the 1980s and 1990s (Gysbers, 2010) Johnson and Johnson (1991) reinforced the need for a competency-based guidance program to help students transition to post-secondary preparation In 1998, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) published a model of school counseling, Vision into Action (Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga, 1998) In 2003, ASCA published a comprehensive, standards-based model titled, The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs, that provides the third iteration of the ASCA National Model (2012)

The founders of the school counseling profession emphasized “guiding” students through developmentally appropriate career decision-making In the mid 1930s, the professional identity of the school counselor shifted to assisting students with life adjustment, which included an emphasis on social and "mental adjustment" (Gysbers, 2010) Schools were encouraged to make the pupil personnel services an fundamental part of the educational system The Evolution of Professional Identity

Career guidance became services provided as a framework of pupil personnel services. Counselors promoted student adjustment through personal contact and by focusing on educational and vocational development (Bell, 1939) The Evolution of Professional Identity

There were varying titles attributed to the school counseling profession (Gysbers, 2010) Most of the counseling services provided within the schools were practiced by teachers, administrators, and deans of students It was also common practice to have a guidance-teacher as opposed to a trained counselor Career development and social-emotional learning activities were often provided in homeroom classes, and some schools began to deliver guidance activities through small groups Few post-baccalaureate programs offered course work specific to the role of the school counselor Role Confusion in the 1940s and 1950s

The Profession in the 1980s and 1990s In 1993, ASCA officially advocated for use of the terms: "professional school counselor" and "comprehensive school counseling program" In 2009, ASCA described school counseling as referring to a comprehensive and coordinated program rather than the solely upon the description of the position of school counselor

In 1920s, it was recommended that the position of school counseling required post-baccalaureate training In the 1950s, many counselor preparation programs began to deemphasize the traditional Trait/Factor theory in favor of the promotion of students' self-concept and social adjustment During the 1960s and 1970s, organizational systems and preventive programming became the professional focus, advancing the school counselor as a change agent Evolving Role Clarification for the School Counselor

During the 1980s and 1990s, there was increased concern within the field of education regarding the achievement gap for children of color and those in poverty (Gysbers, 2010) During this time, the focus became school counseling as an integral program that supports but is also distinct from the school's academic curriculum There was increased emphasis upon the need for accountability and the collection of data to demonstrate the impact of the school counseling program Evolving Role Clarification for the School Counselor

The Progressive Movement (stemming from the large increase in immigration and move from an agrarian to an urban culture) encouraged school counselors to use more structured, systematic methods of helping students identify post-secondary career options (Erford, 2004) Societal concern regarding mental illness encouraged school counselors to work increasingly with the mental and social issues of children (Thompson, 2012) WWI introduced standardized measurements, such as the Army's Alpha and Beta intelligence tests, to identify youth for armed services selection (Gysbers, 2010) During the war, school counselors helped to select students for the armed services, and students’ vocational aspirations often represented a secondary interest Social and Political Influences Upon School Counseling in the 1900s

In the 1930s, legislation created national and state offices of guidance (Gysbers, 2010) After the war, schools counselors returned to focusing upon vocational education There was an effort to specialize the training of school counselors, to distinguish them from teachers In 1946, the Vocational Education Act provided federal funds for guidance program supervision, salaries of counselor-trainees and counselor supervisors, and research on the activities of school counselors (Gysbers, 2010) In 1948, a standard curriculum was established by the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) In 1948, the National Conference of State Supervisors of Guidance Services and Counselor Trainers established certification regulations for school counselors Social and Political Influences Upon School Counseling in the 1920s to the 1950s

In 1958, the NDEA provided funds for testing of students to identify students with aptitudes in math and science, and for universities to train secondary school counselors, which resulted in the tripling of school counselors nationwide between 1958 and 1967 (Thompson, 2012) During the political movements of the 1960s and 1970s, some leaders within the profession wished to establish a guidance model that was a part of the educational system, whereas others wished to align school counseling with psychology The Vocational Education Act of 1963, the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968, and the Education Amendment of 1976 redirected the professional focus back to its origins of career awareness and career decision making The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 encouraged school counselors to address social issues through grants to local school districts to establish programs to prevent school drop-out, particularly among the economically disadvantaged and students with disabilities (Erford, 2004) The ESEA (1965) also increased the number of elementary school counselors (Gysbers, 2010), the roles and functions of which were recommended to include consultation, counseling, classroom guidance, group guidance, and coordination of services (Dinkmeyer, 1971) Social and Political Influences Upon School Counseling in the 1950s to the 1970s

In the 1970's, an economic recession and a decline in the school population resulted in declining school budgets and the elimination of school counseling positions (Gysbers, 2010) The Career Education Act of 1978 and the Carl Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984 re-energized the school counseling profession (Erford, 2004), by supporting school counselors' role in preparing students to enter the world of work, and through federal funds for transition programs The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974 expanded the professional focus of school counseling to include all students in the educational system (Gysbers, 2010) Social and Political Influences Upon School Counseling in the 1970’s

During the 1980s and 1990s, there was a shift towards establishing a comprehensive, standards-based curriculum, based on the work of Gysbers, Myrick, and Johnson (Gysbers, 2010) Federal funding in support of such a curriculum was the Elementary School Counseling Demonstration Act of 1995 and the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act of 1990 (Erford, 2004) The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 represented a political setback for the school counseling profession as it was not included in the planning and development of this monumental legislative movement This omission compelled ASCA, American Counseling Association (ACA), Education Trust, and other professional advocates to develop initiatives to establish the legitimacy of the profession. Social and Political Influences Upon School Counseling in the 1980’s to the 2000’s

The need for advocacy led by professional organizations is apparent in the evolution of the school counseling profession (Gysbers, 2010) In the early 1920's, the National Education Association (NEA) created the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education (CRSE) The CRSE directed public schools to incorporate vocational education throughout the educational process, although school counselors were not included in their planning (Johnson, 1972) Professional Association Influences and Impact

The Occupational Information and Guidance Service (OIGS) of the late 1930s may have been the first official voice for the school counseling profession (Gysbers, 2010) This organization eventually became the National Association of Guidance Supervision and Counselor Trainers, currently known as the Association of Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) In 1948, the first National Conference of State Supervisors of Guidance Services and Counselor Trainers was held in Washington D.C., and this conference ultimately resulted in the publication of the first manual on counselor preparation by the NVGA (Thompson, 2012) The American Personnel and Guidance (APGA) grew of the NVGA, and eventually the APGA became the ACA Professional Association Influences and Impact in the 1930s to the 1950s

In 1952, the APGA (which is now ACA) created the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) division, which was the first organization specific to the profession of school counselors The ASCA has sought to define, unify, and promote the school counseling profession through the publication of a professional journal, newsletters, professional position papers, etc.

Professional Association Influences and Impact in the 1970s to the 1990s In addition to ASCA, the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), and the National Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC; Gysbers, 2010) was established In 1981, CACREP was formed to develop standards of preparation for all types of counseling professionals, including addictions counseling clinical mental health counseling school counseling a standardized curriculum for the protection of the public welfare

Establishment of NBCC In 1982, NBCC was established to develop a national credentialing exam that assess students’ mastery of CACREP's 8 knowledge areas: human growth and development social and cultural foundations helping relationship group counseling career and lifestyle development Appraisal research and program evaluation program orientation ethics NBCC issues a National Certified Counselor (NCC) certificate, and also issues certificates for the specific types of counseling professionals, including the National Certified School Counselor (NCSC) designation Some states and school systems offer increased salaries for NCSCs

In Summary: The School Counseling Profession’s Paradigm Shift The paradigm of the profession has been changed through viewing school counseling as an integral service in the education system, and not merely as that which is provided by or to a few lone individuals within the school or district The school counseling profession has taken the next step in its evolution Legislative advocacy Proactive behaviors exhibited on the part of individual school counselors, state school counseling organizations, and national professional organizations School counseling no longer can be seen as ancillary to the educational system, but rather as a service that ensures the holistic development of all students