Forest Plants Much like wetlands, forests also have plant species that are native and exotic. If a plant is native to a particular area, then it is originally from that area (prior to European settlement). Native plants provide food and habitat for native animals. Without this, the native animals may be forced to migrate to areas. Native plants also keep local genes viable and in the gene pool.

Exotic plants were not originally in the area and have been carried to the area in some way. Exotic plants can become invasive where they dominate the ecosystem preventing opportunities for growth for the native plants. Exotic plants also out grow native plants because they have no native predators Invasive exotic species are the second leading cause of native species extinction (habitat loss being number one) (Center for Applied Ecology, 2007)

Exotic plants were not originally in the area and have been carried to the area in some way Exotic plants can become invasive where they dominate the ecosystem preventing opportunities for growth for the native plants. Exotic plants also out grow native plants because they have no native predators. Invasive exotic species are the second leading cause of native species extinction (habitat loss being number one) (Center for Applied Ecology 2007)

Forest Quality 1.Tree size A rough estimate of the forests’ age can be determined by measuring tree size 2. Size of the forest Large forests ecosystems are more stable 3.Diversity of native species Forests benefit from a large diversity of native species

Forest Quality 4.Percentage of exotic plants Exotic species can dominate native species preventing their growth and survival 5.Rare species or potential for their existence Rare species are generally indicators of a healthy ecosystem 6.Adjacent forest buffer A forest patch that is bordered by another forest benefits from the neighboring forest. A forest may not have a buffer because of deforestation (Center for Applied Ecology, 2007) Deforestation- the destruction of a forest as a result of human activity. (DuBay, Lapinski, Schoch, & Tweed, 1999)

Conservation Many forests are being cut down because of the need for lumber, space, or other human requirements. Ecologists see the need to keep the forests everywhere. (Center for Applied Ecology, 2007)

What would CAE do? The Center for Applied Ecology does many things to ensure forest conservation. Depending on the circumstance, they can improve the quality of an existing forest or create the conditions for a forest in an area that currently not forested.

–Step one Determine forest quality by using the “Forest Quality Rapid Assessment Method”. This method looks at the 6 indicators listed above under “forest quality ”. –Step two A prescription is created based on the quality of the existing forest.

Low quality forests require CAE to focus on invasive exotic species control. Once this is complete, they can focus on planting native species. Medium quality forests may require some invasive exotic control and minimal planting. In this type of forest, native species will begin to grow once the exotics are controlled. High quality forests may have small areas that need species control. Mostly, CAE focuses on maintenance of these systems, keeping them at a high quality.

If a forest does not exist, CAE will undergo a complete restoration where they must develop a list of plants and trees to introduce into an area based on the soils. o Dry soils require hardwoods such as oak and maple trees o Bottom lands where there is moisture require trees such as sycamore and cottonwoods. o Mesic hardwood forests contain trees such as beech and maple In all cases CAE removes trash and unwanted materials from the conservation area (Center for Applied Ecology, 2007)

Leaves o Vary in size (giant Victoria water lily in Guyana has leaves 2m long) o Some leaves attach directly to the stem (grass) and some are connected with a stalk (petiole) o The petiole has tissue that extends from the stem to the leaf to form veins o Different shapes Simple leaf- has a single blade Compound leaf- has leaflets attached to the petiole

o Arrangement on stem  Opposite leaves- when two leaves are arranged in pairs on the stem  Alternate leaves- when only one leaf is present at each point on the stem  Whorled leaves- three or more leaves at the same place on the stem

Leaf Structure 1.Cuticle- waxy layer that covers the tops and bottom of the leaves (helps keep the water in) 2.Upper and lower epidermis- a layer of tightly packed cells that cover and protect all young parts of the plant (like the “skin” of the plant) 3.Mesophyll- photosynthetic tissue of a leaf a.Palisade mesophyll- column shaped cells containing chloroplasts (where most photosynthesis takes place) b.Spongy mesophyll- loosely packet cells with air spaces that allow carbon dioxide, water vapor, and oxygen to circulate around the cells

4. Stomata- openings in the cuticle that control gas exchange (also on stems) 5. Guard cells- control the opening and closing of the stomata a.When the cells fill with water, the pressure causes them to change shape and open. When they are not filed they are flat and closed. b.Loss of water through the stomata is called Transpiration 6. Vascular bundle a.Contains two types of cells that transport material i.Xylem- transports water an d minerals upward from roots ii.Phloem- transports food made in the leaves down to the stem and to the shoots to make more leaves and fruits Roots o underground part of plants the anchor them to the ground o Absorbs water, nutrients, and minerals form the soil and transports them up the stem

o Some plants store food in their roots (carrots, radishes) o Three main types of roots  Tap root- central fleshy root that grows deeper than the rest with smaller roots growing around it  Fibrous root- numerous roots branching from a central point  Aerial roots- roots that cling to objects such as walls for support

Root structure 1.Epidermis- outer layer of cells 2.Root hair- a tiny extension of a single epidermal cell that increases the surface area of the root with the soil. (absorb water, oxygen, and dissolved minerals) 3.Cortex-transports water and ions to the center of the root. Made up of parenchyma cells that can sometimes store food and water. 4.Endodermis- single layer of cells that forms a waterproof seal that surrounds the root’s vascular tissue. 5.Root cap- tip of the root that is covered by a tough protective layer of parenchyma cells- cells that haven’t decided which part of the plant they are going to 6.Apical meristem- where cells are produced that cause the root to increase in length 7.Xylem and Phloem- see leaves 8.Pericycle – within the endodermis, tissue that lateral roots come from (roots that shoot out of the sides)

Root structure

Stems Above ground portion that supports leaves and flowers Are either herbaceous (like flowers) or woody stems (like tree trunks) Transport water, mineral ions, and sugars to form leaves and roots Stores food so plants can survive drought, cold, or seasons with shorter amounts of sunlight o Tuber- a swollen underground stem or leaf (like the sprouts on potatoes) Stem Structure (Similar to a root) 1.Vascular bundles-made of xylem and phloem and are in small separate rings that go around the stem. 2.Cortex- makes up the center of the stem Woody Stems As stems grow in height, they also increase in thickness Wood is actually xylem tissue Growth rings can determine the size of the tree

Bark is actually phloem cells and the cork cambium (layer under the phloem layer)

Flowers Flowers are how plants sexually reproduce Usually contains both male and female parts Parts of a Flower Flowers are considered complete or incomplete. o Complete flowers have all the parts listed above o Incomplete flowers are lacking one or more of these parts

2.Sepal- Leaf like, usually green and circle around the stem underneath the petals Are a protective covering for the flower bud 3.Stamen- the male reproductive structure of the flower. Made of two parts. a.Filament- Structure that supports the anther. b.Anther- at the tip of the filament, produces pollen which contains sperm When pollen grains mature in the anther, it cracks open allowing the pollen to escape 4. Pistil- female structure of the flower. The bottom part of the pistil enlarges to form an ovary that contains an ovule (or egg). 5. Style- an extension of the ovary 6. Stigma- the tip of the style (pollen must land here for reproduction to occur) Has a pollen tube that grows down the style and into the ovary so pollen can reach the ovule (or egg) 1.Petal- Leaf like, usually colorful structure arranged in a circle around the stem Usually brightly colored and often have perfume or nectar to attract pollinators Provides a landing place for pollinators Can be fused to form a tube

Flowers that have both stamens and pistils are called perfect even if it is incomplete because of it lacks sepals or petals. An imperfect flower is incomplete because it is missing stamens or carpals Monoecious- plant that has both male and female parts Dioecious- a plant that has separate male and female plants