Philosophy 219 Plato Republic, Pt. 1

Plato ( BCE)  Plato was from an old aristocratic family in Athens. Many of the important people of his time appear as characters in his dialogues.  As a young man, Plato was greatly interested in philosophy and politics. He was a friend and companion of Socrates. After the death of Socrates, he fled Athens.  Upon returning to Athens around 385 BCE, he founded his school, the Academy, which many people call the first university. It lasted until 529 CE. He taught at the Academy, with a few interruptions, until his death.

Plato ’ s Work  Plato’s philosophical project is available to us primarily through a series of dialogues.  The dialogues pose us a particular problem of interpretation.  They are very tightly constructed dramatic presentations of various philosophical issues.  Though the philosophical content is at the heart of these dialogues, it is not a simple matter to separate the dramatic elements from the philosophical.  Actually, we might not even want to, as Plato himself seems to suggest that the dramatic form is important to the content.

Socrates ( BC)  Like Plato’s relatives, Socrates was a real person who was a central figure in Plato’s dialogues. We know some things about him, because he was a relatively prominent Athenian. He came from a middle class background. He was usually described as a robust, though unattractive man. He was born at the time of the peak of Athenian power and was an adult at the time of the Peloponnesian war, in which he served with distinction.  We know much less about his thinking because he left no writings and it is therefore difficult to discern his actual philosophical positions.  There are a few characteristics of what Socrates was all about upon which there is general agreement.  Socrates was primarily concerned with ethical matters.  Socrates searched for universal definitions— “What is X?”  Socrates’ method was the elenchus. A thesis is extracted from an interlocutor, further beliefs are elicited, these beliefs are shown to be inconsistent with the original thesis.  Socrates’ used irony (the use of a word to express something other than the literal meaning )as a rhetorical strategy. Irony provided the opportunities for: humor, mockery and posing riddles (and perhaps suggesting conclusions).

The Republic  The Republic is generally regarded as Plato’s masterwork.  It’s a dialogue devoted to the question: What is Dikaiosune?  Dikaiosune is a complicated Greek word. It is usually translated as ‘justice,’ but probably means something closer to ‘the proper way to live one’s life.’  In the dialogue, Socrates’s two interlocutors (Glaucon and Adiemantus) have asked Socrates to accomplish two things:  Provide an account of human nature which makes clear why Dikaiosune suits us;  Explain how we can create a person of Dikaiosune ( what an education in Dikaiosune would look like) and demonstrate that their life is the best life.

From the Macrocosm to the Microcosm  “Socrates” begins his response to the charge of “Plato’s brothers” by suggesting an argument from analogy.  Since justice is a feature of cities as well as individuals, let’s try to isolate justice in the larger context.  If we can do that, then we can apply it to the smaller context (the human soul).  This analogy suggests a method: just as justice or injustice grows in an individual, it grows in a city. If we can examine the developing structure of an ideal city, we should be able to identify the sources of justice and injustice in it (59c2).  Note the connection to what we saw in the “Funeral Oration.”

The Social Principle  The first question we must answer then is: on what basis does a community (a polis) form?  Socrates’s answer: the “fact…that we are not individually self-sufficient, but have many wants” (60c1).  “wants” = needs (369d)  What needs? Food, clothing, shelter, etc.  Leads to a (first, primitive) authority principle: each should provide for the welfare of the group (369e).

The Economic Polis  This leads to a discussion of the proliferation of the roles played by citizens in what we could call the economic city.  This city is populated by craftspeople and tradespeople (merchants, servants, wage laborers).  When Socrates asks the question, Where is justice in this economic city (62c1), it becomes clear that it isn’t there, that this city is a “luxurious city,” dominated by appetite and desire-satisfaction, “a community of swine” (62c2).  It is the fact that desires are endless that inevitably leads such a city to war (63c2).

A Rapidly Expanding Polis  Thus, Plato peoples a city, starting with the social principle.  We need others, a primary element of that need is economic. A life dominated by economic relations is (structurally?) inclined to swinish consumption, which is in principle limitless.  We need endless others to ‘fuel’ this need.  More and varied tradespeople and craftspersons, physicians, an army.  The new type of person here is the last, which Plato names a “Guardian.”

The “Soul” of a Guardian  What qualities or characteristics must a defender of the city have (have more than any other, or have predominantly)?  Engaged, perceptive, strong, fast, brave (64c2).  Socrates uses the term ‘spirited’ to refer to the sum of these, employing an analogy to a dog or horse.  Of course, a good ‘dog’ is spirited when it’s appropriate; it is gentle to its masters.  This seems true as well for the guardians.  Of course, it has to be able to recognize the difference, and thus the question of the education of the guardian is the next issue addressed.

2 Types of Guardians  In a luxurious city, the threat is not only external.  The unquenchable desire at the heart of commerce is itself a threat to the city.  As a result, there is a specialization within the guardian class between those focused on external threats and those focused on internal ones.  There’s another distinction, soon to be made explicit. The best guardians, are those that see things the clearest, that know the truth. These are the highest type of guardians.

Who should rule the city?  The authority question: Of all these (the merchants, the various types of guardians) which should be in charge of the society?  The answer appears easy to produce: the best guardians (66c2).  How do we find them: identify prospects, observe them, test them (66-67).  The more complicated question: how do we prepare them (rest of Book III).

So Where’s Justice?  Using the virtue of moderation as the clue (in a city, moderation is expressed in a shared commitment to the common order) Plato identifies dikaiosune in the city as the well-orderedness of the city: each sort of person doing what they are best suited for (75c2 & at 434).  Injustice is the opposite (persons with one soul taking on the role of persons with another).  S then lists the evidence we have for this claim:  this sort of constancy seems to be the condition for the presence of the other virtues;  common understanding of justice as ensuring to each what is their own is consistent with this idea;  injustice in a city seems to arise when people stray from their suited place.

What about the Soul?  Now that we’ve seen justice in the city, we need to finish the argument and apply our insight to the human soul.  We have to determine if the soul has the same structure as the city and if justice in the soul is to be understood like justice in the city—the well- orderedness of the soul—If it (Justice) is the same property (form) in each? Plato’s example of thirst leads us to conclude that the soul has at least two parts: rational and the appetitive (desiring soul).  But what about the spirited part of the soul (the seat of the emotions)?  Initially we must suppose that it could be an aspect of one of the other two, but a closer look shows us that this is not the case: 1)not part of the appetites, because we often get angry with ourselves for giving in to them, and our anger can sometimes help us control them (440a—Leontius); 2)small children show anger well before they show rational capacities so can’t be part of the rational soul either (441b).

What does this city look like?  A large part of Book V is devoted to articulating a social structure that is consistent with and supportive of this just city.  Once again, an animal metaphor (the herd) leads the discussion.  Notable features include:  Recognition of the differences between men and women combined with the recognition that those differences don’t necessarily lead to differences in function. Women can be guardians.  Arranged marriages (breeding).  Shared, common rearing of children.  No ownership of private property in the guardian class.