1 Sensors and Transducers

2 Physical Process Measurand Signal variable Display X S Measurement M Simple Instrument Model Physical Measurement variable Sensor

3 Computer Output Senso r Analog Signal variable Physical Measurement variable Analog Signal variable Digital Signal variable A/D Converter Amplifier Instrument Model (Continue)

4 Calibration

5 Example of Calibration Curve Calibration

6 Accuracy and Error Systematic Error (Bias) Random Error (Precision)

7 Random Noise and Sensor Fusion Instrument model with noise sources Example of sensor fusion Instruments Environmental noise Transmission noise Sensor noise N1N1 N2N2 N3N3 MeasurementX1X1 X2X2 X3X3 S1S1 S2S2 S3S3 Sensor Fusion

8 Operational Modes of Instrumentation Null Instrument

9 Operational Modes of Instrumentation Deflection Instrument A deflection instrument requires input from only one source, but may introduce a loading error. The logic flow chart for a deflection instrument is straightforward.

10 Analog and Digital Sensors Analog Sensors A thermocouple provides an analog signal for processing.

11 Analog and Digital Sensors Digital Sensors A rotating shaft with a revolution counter produces a digital signal.

12 Measurement Standards

13 Spatial Variables Measurement Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular Thickness Measurement Proximity Sensing for Robotics Distance Position, Location, Altitude Measurement Level Measurement Area Measurement Volume Measurement Angle Measurement Tilt Measurement Velocity Measurement Acceleration, Vibration, and Shock Measurement

14 Time and Frequency Measurement Time Measurement Frequency Measurement

15 Mechanical Variables Measurement - Solid Mass and Weight Measurement Density measurement Strain Measurement Force Measurement Torque and Power Measurement Tactile Sensing

16 Mechanical Variables Measurement - Fluid Pressure and Sound Measurement Acoustic Measurement Flow Measurement Differential Pressure Flowmeters Variable Area Flowmeters Positive Displacement Flowmeters Turbine and Vane Flowmeters Impeller Flowmeters Electromagnetic Flowmeters Ultrasonic Flowmeters Vortex Shedding Flowmeters Thermal Mass Flow Sensors Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters Drag Force Flowmeters

17 Mechanical Variables Measurement – Fluid (cont.) Point Velocity Measurement Pitot Probe Anemometry Thermal Anemometry Laser Anemometry Viscosity Measurement Surface Tension Measurement

18 Mechanical Variables Measurement — Thermal Temperature Measurement Thermal Conductivity Measurement Heat Flux Thermal Imaging Calorimetry Measurement

19 Electromagnetic Variables Measurement Voltage Measurement Current Measurement Power Measurement Power Factor Measurement Phase Measurement Energy Measurement Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity Charge Measurement Capacitance and Capacitance Measurement Permittivity Measurement Electric Field Strength Magnetic Field Measurement Permeability and Hysteresis

20 Electromagnetic Variables Measurement (cont,) Inductance Measurement Immittance Measurement Q Factor Measurement Distortion Measurement Noise Measurement Microwave Measurement

21 Optical Variables Measurement Photometry and Radiometry Densitometry Measurement Colorimetry Optical Loss Polarization Measurement Refractive Index Measurement Turbidity Measurement Laser Output Measurement Vision and Image Sensors

22 Radiation Measurement Radioactivity Measurement Charged Particle Measurement Neutron Measurement Dosimetry Measurement

23 Chemical Variables Measurement Composition Measurement Electrochemical Composition Measurement Thermal Composition Measurement Kinetic Methods Chromatography Composition Measurement pH Measurement Humidity and Moisture Measurement Environmental Measurement Meteorological Measurement Air Pollution Measurement Water Quality Measurement Satellite Imaging and Sensing

24 Biomedical Variables Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Blood Pressure Measurement Blood Flow Measurements Ventilation Measurement Blood Chemistry Measurement Medical Imaging