Book 1 Understanding people at work Contents: Session 1: Understanding behavior Session 2: Communication at work Session 3: Understanding motivation Session 3: Understanding motivation Session 4: Job design Session 4: Job design

Session 1: Understanding behavior This book is about understanding behavior at work. It addresses different answers to the question of This book is about understanding behavior at work. It addresses different answers to the question of What makes people behave as they do? What makes people behave as they do? Aims of this session are the following : Aims of this session are the following : Examine how people construct individual understandings of actions and events. Examine how people construct individual understandings of actions and events. Consider the ways in which shared rules and conventions impact on behavior. Consider the ways in which shared rules and conventions impact on behavior. Identify some of common mistakes people make when trying to understand behavior. Identify some of common mistakes people make when trying to understand behavior.

Understanding behavior at work Understanding behavior at work is a difficult task which has been approached in different ways. It is helpful to distinguish between two ways of looking at it. Understanding behavior at work is a difficult task which has been approached in different ways. It is helpful to distinguish between two ways of looking at it. To understand behavior you need to appreciate the point of view of the person involved and the mental status that caused behavior. Therefore you can predict what they will do next. To understand behavior you need to appreciate the point of view of the person involved and the mental status that caused behavior. Therefore you can predict what they will do next. You need to perceive how it reflects social pressures, constraints and conventions, therefore to understand behavior you need to understand these social pressures You need to perceive how it reflects social pressures, constraints and conventions, therefore to understand behavior you need to understand these social pressures

Understanding behavior at work The question that will be useful to ask at this point: The question that will be useful to ask at this point: Is our behavior driven primarily by our motives and intentions, or is it driven by the social situation in which it takes place? Is our behavior driven primarily by our motives and intentions, or is it driven by the social situation in which it takes place? Example (1.1) illustrates conflict that often arises because people respond differently to the same situation. Example (1.1) illustrates conflict that often arises because people respond differently to the same situation. Activity (1.1) Allow 10 minutes Activity (1.1) Allow 10 minutes

The individual in charge In this section will discuss in more detail that events do not have one fixed meaning, but a number of different interpretations based on peoples own experiences, goals and values. In this section will discuss in more detail that events do not have one fixed meaning, but a number of different interpretations based on peoples own experiences, goals and values. Value base: the combination of values, ethics and attitudes a person develops as a result of their education, upbringing, life experiences, culture and environment. Value base: the combination of values, ethics and attitudes a person develops as a result of their education, upbringing, life experiences, culture and environment.

Mental model: the set of assumptions and expectations one person has about another or about a situation, based on previous experience of that person or on similar situations in the past. They may also be based on information from other people. Mental model: the set of assumptions and expectations one person has about another or about a situation, based on previous experience of that person or on similar situations in the past. They may also be based on information from other people. Commonsense facts: an assumption, which may or may not be correct, about how other people are likely to behave, based on previous experiences. Commonsense facts: an assumption, which may or may not be correct, about how other people are likely to behave, based on previous experiences. Activity 1.2 how you construct the behavior of your colleagues. Activity 1.2 how you construct the behavior of your colleagues.

Repertory grid technique: developed by Kelly (1991) Repertory grid technique: developed by Kelly (1991) Suggests that attitudes and perceptions of other people’s behavior are more a reflection of the mental models and value base of the observer than of the person being observed. Suggests that attitudes and perceptions of other people’s behavior are more a reflection of the mental models and value base of the observer than of the person being observed. According to Kelly the constructs say nothing about your colleagues and everything about you. According to Kelly the constructs say nothing about your colleagues and everything about you. Understanding values is of particular importance for managers because: Understanding values is of particular importance for managers because: They often work with people who have quite different values. They often work with people who have quite different values. Managers have values like everyone, the difficult task emerge for managers of accommodating their own values with those of others working both within and outside their team. Managers have values like everyone, the difficult task emerge for managers of accommodating their own values with those of others working both within and outside their team.

Different levels of values: Individual values: we each have ideas what is right and wrong these ideas develop over time and form our personal value base. Circumstances may challenge and change them. Activity 1.3 Individual values: we each have ideas what is right and wrong these ideas develop over time and form our personal value base. Circumstances may challenge and change them. Activity 1.3 Professional or occupational values: groups with recognized sets of values sometime expressed through codes of ethics or value statements. Professional or occupational values: groups with recognized sets of values sometime expressed through codes of ethics or value statements. Activity 1.4 Activity 1.4 Group/team values: shared values and assumptions in a group or team. Activity 1.5 Group/team values: shared values and assumptions in a group or team. Activity 1.5

Social pressures on behavior It is possible to suggest that formal structures and rules shape how people behave and that organizations have a collective identity or culture that influences behavior. It is possible to suggest that formal structures and rules shape how people behave and that organizations have a collective identity or culture that influences behavior. This lead us to think that behavior might be seen to be a reflection of a role that generates a set of expectations that people conform to. This lead us to think that behavior might be seen to be a reflection of a role that generates a set of expectations that people conform to. Activity 1.6 Activity 1.6

It would be beneficial to know at this point that behavior becomes much more about doing what is appropriate. It would be beneficial to know at this point that behavior becomes much more about doing what is appropriate. Formal job roles bring with them certain pressures and expectations about appropriate behavior. So we modify our behavior to fit particular social conventions. Formal job roles bring with them certain pressures and expectations about appropriate behavior. So we modify our behavior to fit particular social conventions. Activity 1.7 Activity 1.7

Common mistakes in understanding behavior We will concentrate on the three common mistakes arising from attempts to understanding behavior: We will concentrate on the three common mistakes arising from attempts to understanding behavior: That we should only consider objective facts. (Exploring other people views will improve richer understanding of the situation). That we should only consider objective facts. (Exploring other people views will improve richer understanding of the situation). That every one works for the same goals/values. That every one works for the same goals/values. That some behavior makes no sense. (It may mean that we are missing some information about events or lacking an appropriate understanding of the situation). That some behavior makes no sense. (It may mean that we are missing some information about events or lacking an appropriate understanding of the situation).

Session 2 communication at work Aims of this session: Aims of this session: Consider communication processes in away that allow you to analyze your interactions with other people. Consider communication processes in away that allow you to analyze your interactions with other people. Analyze how organizational factors impact on effective communication. Analyze how organizational factors impact on effective communication. Develop your insight into the advantage and disadvantage of the range of communication and methods available. Develop your insight into the advantage and disadvantage of the range of communication and methods available.

Communication channels: The route by which communication takes place. The route by which communication takes place. We will focus on interpersonal communication, which is takes place between groups of people; they will also discuss how we are able to communicate messages in many different ways. We will focus on interpersonal communication, which is takes place between groups of people; they will also discuss how we are able to communicate messages in many different ways. Activity 2.1 Activity 2.1

Communication through language: Much communication occurs through words written or spoken. Much communication occurs through words written or spoken. Words: have both an implicit and explicit. Words: have both an implicit and explicit. Austin (1962): developed distinction between Austin (1962): developed distinction between Locution: literal meaning. Locution: literal meaning. Illocution: actual meaning (what hidden within the literal meaning). Illocution: actual meaning (what hidden within the literal meaning). Deaux (1993): underline this idea by suggesting what we use words to do one of at least five things: Deaux (1993): underline this idea by suggesting what we use words to do one of at least five things: Describing something. Describing something. Trying to influence someone. Trying to influence someone. Expressing feelings or attitude. Expressing feelings or attitude. Making a commitment. Making a commitment. Trying to accomplish something directly Trying to accomplish something directly

It would be beneficial at this point to point how people often fail to appreciate the range of meaning a term can have. It would be beneficial at this point to point how people often fail to appreciate the range of meaning a term can have. Box 2.1 Explain meta-language Box 2.1 Explain meta-language Meta-language: the meaning implied by words and phrases rather than their literal meaning. Meta-language: the meaning implied by words and phrases rather than their literal meaning. Is the Jargon particular groups develop. Is the Jargon particular groups develop. Activity 2.2 Activity 2.2

Not all communication drives from words alone (paralanguage). Not all communication drives from words alone (paralanguage). Para-language: the meaning attached to language resulting from the way in which it is spoken or written. Factors include (tone of voice, rhythm, intensity). Para-language: the meaning attached to language resulting from the way in which it is spoken or written. Factors include (tone of voice, rhythm, intensity).

Non verbal communication: Communication that does not take the form of words such as facial expression, gestures, poses and movement. (ex : winking, shaking hands, smiling). Communication that does not take the form of words such as facial expression, gestures, poses and movement. (ex : winking, shaking hands, smiling). Activity 2.3 Activity 2.3

Communication processes Simple model of communication (developed by Shanon and Weaver 1949) contains source, transmitter, receiver, destination and noise. Figure 2.1 Simple model of communication (developed by Shanon and Weaver 1949) contains source, transmitter, receiver, destination and noise. Figure 2.1

This model developed by Deaux(1993) these were along three main dimensions: This model developed by Deaux(1993) these were along three main dimensions: Communication is an interaction between two parties. Communication is an interaction between two parties. Both parties bring to the interaction their own expectations and understandings of self and context. Both parties bring to the interaction their own expectations and understandings of self and context. Communication is only possible where individuals share a certain amount of common ground. Figure 2.2 Activity 2.4 Communication is only possible where individuals share a certain amount of common ground. Figure 2.2 Activity 2.4

Effective communication Communication need. Communication need. Developing a shared basis for communication. Developing a shared basis for communication. Communication climate. Communication climate. Listening. Listening. Communication need: as manager you need to understand both quantity of information available and the information needs. Communication need: as manager you need to understand both quantity of information available and the information needs. Activity 2.7 Activity 2.7

Developing a shared basis for communication: quantity of information we receive and interpreting this information are both two essential issues that communication relies on. Developing a shared basis for communication: quantity of information we receive and interpreting this information are both two essential issues that communication relies on. Inability to establish such a basis for communication can lead to problems. Inability to establish such a basis for communication can lead to problems. You must understand your audience. You must understand your audience. Make sure important terms or aspects are explained. Make sure important terms or aspects are explained. Communication is more effective when the beliefs of the audience are taken into account. Communication is more effective when the beliefs of the audience are taken into account.

Communication climate: Communication climate: The atmosphere or conditions in which ideas, information and feelings are exchanged. The atmosphere or conditions in which ideas, information and feelings are exchanged. The Communication climate may be open or closed. The Communication climate may be open or closed.

Open communication climate: Open communication climate: An environment in which information is provided freely to all in an honest, egalitarian, and nonjudgmental and solution oriented way. An environment in which information is provided freely to all in an honest, egalitarian, and nonjudgmental and solution oriented way.

Characteristics of open communication behavior: Descriptive (information rather than evaluation) Descriptive (information rather than evaluation) Solution oriented (focus on problem) Solution oriented (focus on problem) Open and honest (to help and improve) Open and honest (to help and improve) Egalitarian (regardless of their role or status) Egalitarian (regardless of their role or status) Forgiving Forgiving Feedback (essential part of maintaining good relationship) Feedback (essential part of maintaining good relationship)

Closed communication climate : Closed communication climate : An environment in which communication is restricted and limited. Characterized by behaviors which are: An environment in which communication is restricted and limited. Characterized by behaviors which are: Judgmental. Judgmental. Controlling (people expected to conform to certain types of behavior). Controlling (people expected to conform to certain types of behavior). Deceptive (manipulative way). Deceptive (manipulative way). Non-caring. Non-caring. Superior. Superior. Dogmatic (UN willingness to accept other points of views). Dogmatic (UN willingness to accept other points of views). Hostile. Hostile. Feedback is discouraged and Communication are generally one way from top to down. Feedback is discouraged and Communication are generally one way from top to down.

Feedback: Acknowledgement of a person’s performance. If it includes suggestions for improvement, it is constructive feedback or destructive feedback. Feedback: Acknowledgement of a person’s performance. If it includes suggestions for improvement, it is constructive feedback or destructive feedback.

Listening Is an active psychological process that requires concentration and conscious effort. Is an active psychological process that requires concentration and conscious effort. Different type of listening: Different type of listening: 1- Support listening: a form of active listening which encourages the speaker to freely express their views and feeling, so that the listener can discover more about their opinions and attitudes using encouraging body language such as keeping eye contact and nodding your head.

2- Responding listening: a form of active listening where the focus is on creating a relationship with speaker rather than purely on absorbing what they are saying 3- Retention listening: a form of active listening where the focus is on gaining information and facts rather than developing a relationship with the speaker.

Active listening: a way of listening that involves participation in the communication process, gathering information through concentration and making a conscious effort by asking questions and summarizing. Active listening: a way of listening that involves participation in the communication process, gathering information through concentration and making a conscious effort by asking questions and summarizing.

The skill of active listening involves: Listen for message content, gathering key facts. Listen for message content, gathering key facts. Recognize potential barriers to effective communication, seek clarification. Recognize potential barriers to effective communication, seek clarification. Identify purpose, describe, influence or communicate feelings. Identify purpose, describe, influence or communicate feelings. Respond through facial expressions or body gestures. Respond through facial expressions or body gestures. Check, seek clarity through questioning. Check, seek clarity through questioning. Encourage the speaker to continue and expand on points they have failed to make clear. Encourage the speaker to continue and expand on points they have failed to make clear. Reflect back what you think you have heard by repeating or paraphrasing it. Reflect back what you think you have heard by repeating or paraphrasing it. Activity 2.8, 2.9 Activity 2.8, 2.9