Chapter 5 Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

The Nature of the Problem: Persistence and Change

Persistence and Change In general, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination are less acceptable than ever before. But exceptions do exist.

Persisting Attitudes

Defining Important Terms Racism: Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s background Sexism: Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender Stereotypes: Beliefs that associate a whole group of people with certain traits. Prejudice: Negative feelings about others because of their connection to a social group. Discrimination: Negative behaviors directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group.

Racism: Current Forms and Challenges Research reveals that racial prejudice has been on the decline over the last several decades Re-election of Barack Obama was seen by many as significant sign of racial progress

Changes in Overt Racism

Types of Racism Modern Racism: A form of racism that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize Implicit Racism: Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally

Facial Features and Prison Sentences

Development of Explicit vs. Implicit Racial Preferences

Reducing Racial Prejudice

Interracial Interactions Metastereotypes – thoughts about the outgroup stereotypes that a person may be a part of during interracial interactions – This then can influence the interaction

Colorblind?

Sexism: Ambivalence and Double Standards Blatant displays of sexism are less socially acceptable than in the past – But do continue to persist today Gender stereotypes are distinct in that they are not only descriptive, but also prescriptive – They tell people what they should do or be

Ambivalent Sexism Form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs/feelings as well as affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs/feelings – Hostile sexism – Benevolent sexism

Hostile Sexism Across Countries

Sex Discrimination Seems to have diminished over time, but discrimination based on sex is still prevalent today

Women in Specific Occupations

Beyond Racism and Sexism: Age, Weight, Sexuality, and Other Targets Other types of discrimination

Being Stigmatized Being persistently stereotyped, perceived as deviant, and devalued in society because of membership in a particular social group or because of a particular characteristic.

Gay Pride and Spare Change

Stereotype Threat Stereotype threat is the fear that one will be reduced to a stereotype in the eyes of others. How can stereotype threat hamper academic achievement? – The reactions to the threat can directly interfere with performance. – The threat can cause individuals to dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity.

Stereotype Threat and Academic Performance

Stereotype Threat

Causes of the Problem: Intergroup, Motivational Cognitive and Cultural Factors

Social Categorization and Intergroup Conflict The classification of persons into groups on the basis of attributes In some ways, is natural and adaptive – Saves time and energy But can lead to overestimation of differences between groups and underestimation of differences within groups

Ingroups vs. Outgroups Strong tendency to divide people into ingroups and outgroups. Consequences – Exaggerate differences between ingroups and other outgroups – Outgroup homogeneity effect

Why Are Outgroups Seen As Homogeneous? We often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because we have little personal contact with them. We often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members. New neuroscientific research examining this effect

Neural Activity and Ingroup Bias

Dehumanizing Outgroups New research indicates that perceivers may actually process faces of outgroup members more like objects than fellow human beings Dehumanization has played a role in atrocities throughout history

Fundamental Motives Between Groups Humans live, work, play, and fight in groups A fundamental motive is need to affiliate – Serves basic motive of self-protection – Also can generate “Us vs. Them” mentality People tend to favor ingroups (us) over outgroups (them) – Optimal distinctiveness theory – Terror management theory

Motives Concerning Intergroup Dominance and Status Social dominance orientation: a desire to see one’s ingroups as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups System justification: processes that may endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements – i.e., the status quo

Stereotype Content Model A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influences group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth – Competence influenced by relative status – Warmth influenced by perceived competition

Robber’s Cave Sherif and colleagues (1961) Examined intergroup conflict Superordinate goals: mutual goals that could be achieved only through cooperation

Realistic Conflict Theory Direct competition for valuable but limited resources breeds hostility between groups – E.g., land, jobs, power But “realistic” competition can be imagined Relative deprivation: Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others

Social Identity Theory Two Basic Predictions: – Threats to one’s self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism. – Expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance one’s self-esteem.

Social Identity Theory

Self-Esteem and Prejudice

Situational and Individual Differences Degree of ingroup identification The relative size and distinctiveness of one’s ingroup The person’s status relative to others in the ingroup

Culture and Social Identity Collectivists more likely to value connectedness and interdependence with people and groups around them Collectivists less likely to show biases favoring their ingroups in order to boost their self- esteem. But collectivists may draw sharper distinctions between ingroup and outgroup members.

Culture and Socialization Socialization refers to process by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group – Includes stereotypes and status of groups

Gender Stereotypes Inundated with gender stereotypes from birth and through the life span – E.g., males more adventurous, assertive, aggressive, independent, etc. – E.g., females more sensitive, gentle, dependent, emotional, etc. Children begin to understand these stereotypes quite early – one study, by age of 2

What Mothers Would Say

Social Role Theory Small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women Three steps: – Combination of biological and social factors, division of labor emerged – People behave in ways that fit the roles they play – These behavioral differences provide a continual basis for social perception

Media Effects Pervasive media can lead to exposure of images that perpetuate stereotypes and discrimination Media exposure can influence both men and women’s attitudes and behavior While effect can often be negative, media can also promote positive norms

Are Stereotypes Ever Accurate? What is meant by “accurate”? Stereotyping can often lead to self-fulfilling prophecies which further distort perceptions and realities

Confirmation Biases and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Stereotypes are often maintained and strengthened through confirmation biases. – Tendency to interpret, seek, and create information to confirm expectations Stereotypes can cause a perceiver to act in such a way that the stereotyped group member really does behave in a stereotype- confirming way. – The stereotype creates a “self-fulfilling prophecy.”

How Stereotypes Survive and Self-Perpetuate Illusory correlation: The tendency for people to overestimate the link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated. Tend to overestimate the association between variables when: – The variables are distinctive – The variables are already expected to go together

How Stereotypes Survive: Subtyping Stereotypes stubbornly survive disconfirmation through “subtyping.” – Exceptions to a stereotype are placed in a separate category rather than used to revise the held stereotype

Is Stereotyping Inevitable? Automatic vs. Intentional Processes Stereotypes can be automatic, due in large part to socialization Subliminal presentation: presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have conscious awareness of having been exposed to them Amount of exposure to the stereotype How prejudiced the perceiver is

“41 Shots”: Amadou Diallo On February 4, 1999, just after midnight, Amadou Diallo was shot at 41 times by police. He was hit 19 times and killed. Police mistakenly took the wallet in his hand for a gun. This case prompted renewed research into racial stereotyping.

Shoot or Not?

The Hoodie and the Gun: Revisiting the Trayvon Martin Killing Discuss the outcome of the trial in terms of this chapter.

Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Intergroup Contact Allport’s contact hypothesis – Under certain conditions, direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) – What would be the effect of this large-scale social experiment?

The Contact Hypothesis

Intergroup Friendships and Extended Contact Developing friendships across groups is one of the best ways to experience many of the optimal conditions for contact

With a Little Help From My Cross-Group Friends

The Jigsaw Classroom A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts. Model of how to use interpersonal contact to promote greater tolerance of diversity.

Shared Identities Ingroup Identity Model: decategorization and recategorization Through decategorization, people pay less attention to categories and intergroup boundaries. Through recategorization, individuals may change their conceptions of the group so that they have a more inclusive, diverse sense of their own ingroup.

Trust, Belonging, and Reducing Stereotype Threat Successful interventions against the stereotype threat effects include the fact that the individuals feel a sense of trust and safety in the situation.

Exerting Self-Control People often stereotype and show prejudice toward others even when they would rather not.

Changing, Cognitions, Cultures and Motivations Motivations, cognitions, norms, and values can change over time Social psychologists recognize more and more that people are motivated to not be prejudiced – May begin by not wanting to appear so – But then can become internalized

Productive and Counterproductive Antiprejudice Messages