Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Weather & Climate Hydrosphere: the Earth’s water & ice layer: 97% salt water & 3% fresh water (3/4 of fresh water is in ice, nearly 1/4 is ground water, less than 1% is in lakes, rivers, & is water vapor) Smaller streams empty into rivers, which empty into larger rivers, then finally to the ocean.

Stream Development Stream Channel: a narrow pathway carved into sediment or rock by moving water Meander: bend or curve in a stream channel caused by moving water An ox bow lake is created over time as erosion and deposition changes the river's course. Delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water.

Movement and Storage of Groundwater Infiltration, zone of saturation, zone of aeration,& water table -Permeability (ability of water to penetrate) - aquifers, aquicludes & springs - Karst topography is characterized by caves & sinkholes

Atmosphere: the thin mixture of gases that surround the Earth 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% trace gases (carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor, etc.) temperature and pressure decrease with elevation (temp. ↓ 6.5°C per 1 km) (14.7 PSI at sea level) type and percentages of gases remains the same, but density decreases

Layers of the atmosphere Thermosphere (heat): Ionosphere & Exosphere. From 80 km into outer space. Mesosphere (middle): From 50 – 80 km up. Stratosphere (spreading out): From 12 – 50 km. Troposphere (turning): From 0 to 12 km. Temperatures ↓ at a rate of 6.5°C per km. (weather layer)

Global convection currents: movement of air between the equator and poles, caused by temperature differences, that produce global wind patterns. Coriolis Effect: The way Earth’s rotation makes winds in the Northern Hemisphere curve to the right (eastward) and winds in the Southern Hemisphere curve to the left. (westward).

Global Atmospheric Wind Patterns: Doldrums: near equator, a calm area where warm air rises Tradewinds: blow from the horse latitudes (calm areas of falling air) toward the equator Horse Latitudes: areas of calm where cool air sinks at the tropics Prevailing Westerlies: blow away from the horse latitudes toward the poles Polar Easterlies: cold polar air blowing away from the poles

Air Masses affect weather and climate. 1.Maritime Polar: cool moist air from over polar water 2.Maritime Tropical: warm moist air from over tropical water 3.Continental Polar: cold dry air from over polar land 4.Continental Tropical: hot dry air from over tropical land 5.Arctic: cold dry air, receives little solar radiation in winter, but near constant solar radiation in summer.

Fronts affect weather 1.Cold Front: cold air moves under warmer air – storms 2.Warm Front: warm air moves over colder air – light precipitation, followed by warm/dry weather 3.Occluded Front: cold & cool air masses come together & force warm air up – light precipitation 4.Stationary Front: stays in one place for extended time.

Weather: the current atmospheric phenomena of an area Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given temperature Clouds form as water vapor condenses on condensation nuclei (particulates of dust, smoke, or ash) as the air cools. Precipitation: H 2 O falling to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, hail.

Winds are caused by differences in pressure due to the imbalanced heating of Earth’s surface. High and Low Pressure Areas: H=dry weather; L=wet weather.

Weather Forecasting Maps

Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis. Seasons are NOT caused by distance from the Sun.

Climate: typical weather pattern in an area over a long period of time Main factors that influence temperature: - latitude (distance from the equator) - distance from large bodies of water (water holds heat and keep coastal areas more moderate, in-land areas have wider temperature extremes) - ocean currents (currents from the equator bring warm air, from poles bring cold air)

Main factors that affect precipitation are prevailing winds & the presence of mountains -Mountain Effects on Climate: * Windward: water vapor condenses in rising air on windward side of the mountain chain producing precipitation. Produces a very moist climate * Leeward: dry air moves over the top of the mountain chain producing a very dry climate.

Major Climate Zones: Tropical Rainforest: wet, over 100 inches precipitation, 70 – 80 ºF. Desert: dry, less than 10 inches precipitation, hot, up to 120 ºF. Grassland: moist, 10 – 30 inches precipitation, cold winters & hot summers, -40 – 110 ºF. Temperate Marine (mediteranean/subtropical): moist, 20 – 50 inches precipitation, moderate temps, 40 – 90 ºF. Deciduous Forest (temperate continental): moist, 20 – 40 inches precipitation, cold winters & hot summers, -20 – 100 ºF. Coniferous Forest (taiga/boreal forest): moist, 20 – 30 inches precipitation, cool climate, -30 – 70 ºF. Tundra (permafrost): moist, 10 – 20 inches of precipitation, cold, -70 – 55 ºF. Highlands: mountainous regions with similar climates to tundra. Polar: permanently covered in ice