Ch. 7 Groups, Organizations, and Institutions

Groups A key element of our social structure and much of our social interaction takes place within them. A key element of our social structure and much of our social interaction takes place within them. All groups set boundaries to indicate who does and who does not belong. All groups set boundaries to indicate who does and who does not belong.

Purpose of Groups Structural functionalists: people form groups to meet their instrumental (or task-oriented) and expressive (or emotional) needs. Structural functionalists: people form groups to meet their instrumental (or task-oriented) and expressive (or emotional) needs. help members do jobs that are impossible or very difficult to do alone. help members do jobs that are impossible or very difficult to do alone. Conflict theorists: groups involve a series of power relationships whereby the needs of individual members may not be equally served. Conflict theorists: groups involve a series of power relationships whereby the needs of individual members may not be equally served. Symbolic interactionists: group size influences interactions among members. Symbolic interactionists: group size influences interactions among members.

Primary groups Small, personal groups Small, personal groups According to Charles H. Cooley, a primary group is a small group whose members engage in face ‑ to ‑ face, emotion ‑ based interactions over an extended period of time According to Charles H. Cooley, a primary group is a small group whose members engage in face ‑ to ‑ face, emotion ‑ based interactions over an extended period of time The family is an example The family is an example

Secondary groups Larger, more specialized groups Larger, more specialized groups Members have less personal and more formal, goal ‑ oriented relationships. Members have less personal and more formal, goal ‑ oriented relationships. Usually limited period of time Usually limited period of time i.e. girl guides or boy scouts, graduate school cohort i.e. girl guides or boy scouts, graduate school cohort

Who Belongs? Ingroups are groups to which we belong and with which we identify, they provide us not only with a source of identity but with a point of reference. Ingroups are groups to which we belong and with which we identify, they provide us not only with a source of identity but with a point of reference. Outgroup is a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility Outgroup is a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility

Reference Group A group that strongly influences a person’s behaviour and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member. A group that strongly influences a person’s behaviour and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member. Explains why our behaviour and attitudes sometimes differ from those of our membership groups Explains why our behaviour and attitudes sometimes differ from those of our membership groups We may accept the values and norms of a group with which we identify rather than one to which we belong. We may accept the values and norms of a group with which we identify rather than one to which we belong.

How do we belong? Network is a web of social relationships that links one person with other people and, through them, additional people. Network is a web of social relationships that links one person with other people and, through them, additional people.

Research on networks Research has shown that networks play a very important role in graduating students finding employment. Research has shown that networks play a very important role in graduating students finding employment. Milgram study (1967) found it took an average of six contacts to get letters to the intended recipient Milgram study (1967) found it took an average of six contacts to get letters to the intended recipient A study of bridges (individuals who bridge very different social worlds), a type of network analysis, has important implications in many different fields, not the least of which is epidemiology (studies the spread of disease ie. HIV, SARS). A study of bridges (individuals who bridge very different social worlds), a type of network analysis, has important implications in many different fields, not the least of which is epidemiology (studies the spread of disease ie. HIV, SARS).

Dyads and Triads (Simmel) Group boundaries may be formal, with clearly defined criteria for membership, or informal, as they are with friendship groups. Group boundaries may be formal, with clearly defined criteria for membership, or informal, as they are with friendship groups. The size of a group is one of its most important features. The size of a group is one of its most important features. Dyads—groups composed of two members Dyads—groups composed of two members Triads—groups of three Triads—groups of three

Conformity In order to maintain ties with a group, many members are willing to conform to norms established and reinforced by group members In order to maintain ties with a group, many members are willing to conform to norms established and reinforced by group members Asch Conformity Experiment Asch Conformity Experiment Asch Conformity Experiment Asch Conformity Experiment “peer pressure” “peer pressure” worst case scenario these include harassment, and groupthink (Janis) i.e Challenger disaster worst case scenario these include harassment, and groupthink (Janis) i.e Challenger disaster

The Climate Change Debate Listen to Dr. Judith Curry’s 2015 testimony at the U. S. Senate Committee on Climate Change Listen to Dr. Judith Curry’s 2015 testimony at the U. S. Senate Committee on Climate Change Climatologist Breaks the Silence on Global Warming Groupthink Climatologist Breaks the Silence on Global Warming Groupthink Climatologist Breaks the Silence on Global Warming Groupthink Climatologist Breaks the Silence on Global Warming Groupthink

Here are some other links to explore this issue…… Curry’s Wall Street Journal article (Oct. 9, 2014) Curry’s Wall Street Journal article (Oct. 9, 2014) Curry’s Wall Street Journal article (Oct. 9, 2014) Curry’s Wall Street Journal article (Oct. 9, 2014) “I was tossed out of the tribe” (The Spectator, Nov. 28, 2015) “I was tossed out of the tribe” (The Spectator, Nov. 28, 2015) “I was tossed out of the tribe” (The Spectator, Nov. 28, 2015) “I was tossed out of the tribe” (The Spectator, Nov. 28, 2015) The other side: NASA website on the 97% consensus and Evidence The other side: NASA website on the 97% consensus and Evidence NASA website on the 97% consensusEvidence NASA website on the 97% consensusEvidence Noam Chomsky: How Climate Change Became a 'Liberal Hoax' Noam Chomsky: How Climate Change Became a 'Liberal Hoax'How Climate Change Became a 'Liberal Hoax'How Climate Change Became a 'Liberal Hoax' Bill McKibben: Why Climate Change Is the Most Urgent Challenge We Face Bill McKibben: Why Climate Change Is the Most Urgent Challenge We FaceWhy Climate Change Is the Most Urgent Challenge We FaceWhy Climate Change Is the Most Urgent Challenge We Face Michael Crichton on his 2004 novel State of Fear Michael Crichton on his 2004 novel State of Fear Michael Crichton on his 2004 novel State of Fear Michael Crichton on his 2004 novel State of Fear

Social Institutions A set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs A set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs These are general norms set by the larger society to govern group and organizational “belongingness” These are general norms set by the larger society to govern group and organizational “belongingness” Some groups become “institutionalized” (i.e. family) Some groups become “institutionalized” (i.e. family)

Five Essential Tasks of an Institution 1. Replacing members (i.e. family and procreation) 1. Replacing members (i.e. family and procreation) 2. Teaching new members (i.e. in family). 2. Teaching new members (i.e. in family). 3. Producing, distributing, and consuming goods and services (i.e. the economy). 3. Producing, distributing, and consuming goods and services (i.e. the economy). 4. Preserving order. 4. Preserving order. 5. Providing and maintaining sense of purpose 5. Providing and maintaining sense of purpose

Structural Functionalist and Conflict Views Structural Functionalist Structural Functionalist Interrelated and interdependent Interrelated and interdependent resist change resist change integrated, promote stability integrated, promote stability Conflict Conflict outcome and functioning of institutional structures is not necessarily efficient nor desirable. outcome and functioning of institutional structures is not necessarily efficient nor desirable. Order is negotiated, but not all groups have equal footing Order is negotiated, but not all groups have equal footing

Formal Organizations Highly structured groups for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals Highly structured groups for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals Organized in an efficient manner Organized in an efficient manner Basic structure will often remain unchanged for many years. Basic structure will often remain unchanged for many years.

Bureaucracy (Max Weber) A formal organization characterized by: A formal organization characterized by: Hierarchical authority Hierarchical authority Division of labour Division of labour Rules and regulations Rules and regulations Qualification-based (technical “competence”) employment Qualification-based (technical “competence”) employment Impersonality in personnel relations and concerns Impersonality in personnel relations and concerns Formal communications Formal communications

Informal Structure in Bureaucracy Interactions which ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of the bureaucracy Interactions which ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of the bureaucracy i.e. “the grapevine” i.e. “the grapevine” “work culture” “work culture”

Shortcomings of Bureaucracy Inefficiency and rigidity Inefficiency and rigidity Resistance to change Resistance to change Perpetuation of ethnic, class, and gender inequalities Perpetuation of ethnic, class, and gender inequalities Read United Nations tries transparency in finding new secretary general (CBC 2016) Read United Nations tries transparency in finding new secretary general (CBC 2016)United Nations tries transparency in finding new secretary generalUnited Nations tries transparency in finding new secretary general

McDonaldization Ritzer has identified four main elements: Ritzer has identified four main elements: Efficiency Efficiency Calculability Calculability Predictability Predictability Control Control

Alternative Forms of Bureaucratic Organization “Humanized” bureaucracy “Humanized” bureaucracy Japanese model of organization Japanese model of organization Less hierarchy, joint responsibility and problem-solving, lifelong Less hierarchy, joint responsibility and problem-solving, lifelong The horizontal model The horizontal model Read Why Google’s Workplaces Make Other Workers Envious Read Why Google’s Workplaces Make Other Workers EnviousWhy Google’s Workplaces Make Other Workers EnviousWhy Google’s Workplaces Make Other Workers Envious (CBC News Jan. 16, 2016) (CBC News Jan. 16, 2016)