Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Physical Development in Early Childhood  Skeletal growth:  new epiphyses emerge  lose baby teeth  Brain development:  rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex  hemispheres continue to lateralize Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Handedness  Reflects dominant cerebral hemisphere:  right-handed (90%)— left hemisphere  left-handed (10%)— both hemispheres  Jointly influenced by nature and nurture:  position in uterus  practice © Elena Stepanova/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Brain Development in Early Childhood  Left hemisphere especially active:  language skills  handedness  Links among parts of the brain increase:  cerebellum  reticular formation  hippocampus  corpus callosum Figure 7.2 Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Influences on Physical Growth and Health  Heredity and hormones:  growth hormone  thyroid-stimulating hormone  Nutrition  Infectious disease:  malnutrition  immunization  Childhood injuries © CandyBox Images/Fotolia Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nutrition in Early Childhood  Appetite declines  Wariness of new foods is adaptive  Needs a high-quality diet that limits fats, oils, salt, and sugar  Imitates others’ food choices  Poor-quality diet is associated with cognitive deficits and behavior problems Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Infectious Disease and Malnutrition  Poor diet depresses immune system  Illness reduces appetite  Diarrhea a danger in developing countries; can be helped by  oral rehydration therapy  zinc supplements © Creativa/Fotolia Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Immunizations  Many U.S. children lack immunizations  Reasons include  cost  parents’ stressful daily lives  misconceptions about vaccine safety © Jaimie Duplass/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Factors Related to Childhood Injuries  Gender and temperament  Poverty, single parenthood, low parental education  Societal conditions:  international differences  teenage parents  shortage of high-quality child care Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

International Death Rates Due to Injury Figure 7.3 (Adapted from World Health Organization, 2008.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Motor Development in Early Childhood  Gross-motor skills:  balance improves  gait smooth and rhythmic by age 2  upper- and lower-body skills combine into more refined actions by age 5  greater speed and endurance  Fine-motor skills:  self-help: dressing, eating  drawing and printing Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Progression of Drawing Skills  Scribbles  First representational forms:  Draws first recognizable pictures: 3 years  draws boundaries and tadpole people: 3–4 years  More complex drawings: 5–6 years  Early printing: 4–6 years Figure 7.4 (Left: Reprinted by permission from Artful Scribbles by Howard Gardner. Available from Basic Books, an imprint of The Perseus Books Group. Copyright © Right: From E. Winner, “Where Pelicans Kiss Seals,” Psychology Today, 20[8], August 1986, p. 35. Reprinted by permission from the collection of Ellen Winner.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Individual Differences in Motor Skills  Gender  Boys excel in skills using force and power.  Girls excel in skills using balance and agility.  Practice  Adult encouragement © locrifa/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage  Ages 2 to 7  Gains in mental representation:  make-believe play  symbol–real-world relations  Limitations in thinking:  egocentrism  lack of conservation  lack of hierarchical classification Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Early Childhood Development of Make-Believe  With age, make-believe gradually  detaches from real-life conditions  becomes less self-centered  becomes more complex  Sociodramatic play develops © Lisa Eastman/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Benefits of Make-Believe Play  Contributes to cognitive and social skills  Strengthens mental abilities:  sustained attention  memory  language and literacy  creativity  regulation of emotion  perspective taking © Mat Hayward/Fotolia Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Dual Representation  Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol  Strengthens around age 3  Adult teaching can help:  experiences with maps, photos, drawings, and make-believe play  pointing out similarities of symbols to real world Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Egocentrism Failure to distinguish others’ viewpoints from one’s own Figure 7.5 Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Animistic Thinking Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities © Rob Marmion/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Conservation Understanding that physical characteristics remain the same when appearance changes:  Centration: focus on one aspect to neglect of others  Irreversibility: inability to mentally reverse a series of steps Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Piagetian Conservation Tasks Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 7.6

Piaget’s Class Inclusion Problem Figure 7.7 Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought Egocentrism  Able to take others’ perspectives  Animistic thinking results from incomplete knowledge of objects Logical thought  Conservation evident on simplified tasks  Reasons by analogy about physical changes Categorization  Hierarchical classification evident in everyday knowledge Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluation of Piaget  Development of logical operations is gradual  Disagreement over whether a preoperational stage really exists  Some experts deny the stage approach  Others support a flexible stage notion—a related set of competencies develops over an extended period Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Educational Principles Derived from Piaget’s Theory  Discovery learning  Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn  Acceptance of individual differences © Pressmaster/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory  Private speech  Zone of proximal development  Scaffolding: support of an “expert” © Blend Images/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Children’s Private Speech  For Piaget, “egocentric speech”  For Vygotsky, the foundation for all higher cognitive processes  Serves a self-guiding function; increases during challenging tasks  Gradually internalized as silent, inner speech Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding:  Adults aid learning by adjusting support to child’s level of performance  Effectiveness varies culturally © Irina Schmidt/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Vygotsky and Education  Assisted discovery: teacher  guides learning  tailors assistance to each child’s zone of proximal development  Peer collaboration  Make-believe play © Olesya Feketa/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory  Helps us understand cultural variation in cognition  Focuses on language, deemphasizes other routes to cognitive development  Says little about how basic elementary capacities (motor, perceptual, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills) contribute to higher cognitive processes Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gains in Information Processing  Attention: inhibition, planning  Memory: recognition, recall, episodic memory  Theory of mind: false belief  Emergent literacy  Mathematical reasoning © David Huntley Creative/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Inhibition of Impulses Figure 7.8 (From A. Diamond, 2004, “Normal Development of Prefrontal Cortex from Birth to Young Adulthood: Cognitive Functions, Anatomy, and Biochemistry,” as appeared in D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight, [Eds.], Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, New York: Oxford University Press, p Reprinted by permission of Adele Diamond.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Recognition and Recall Recognition  Noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced Recall  Generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus  More difficult than recognition Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Episodic Memory  Scripts: memory for familiar everyday events  Autobiographical memory: memory for one-time events © auremar/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Autobiographical Memory  Improves with cognitive and conversational skills  Influence of adult interaction:  elaborative style: fosters organized and detailed personal stories  repetitive style: weak at promoting autobiographical recall Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Young Child’s Theory of Mind  Early awareness of mental life: infancy through age 3  Mastery of false belief tasks: around age 4  Factors contributing to mastery of false belief:  language  executive function  social experiences Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fostering Emergent Literacy  Language skills:  phonological awareness  vocabulary and grammar  Informal literacy experiences:  games  interactive reading  writing  Teacher training, books for low-SES families © Ami Parikh/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

A Story and a Grocery List Written by a 4-Year-Old Figure 7.10 (From McGee, Lea M.; Richgels, Donald J., Literacy's Beginnings: Supporting Young Readers and Writers, 4th Ed., © 2004, p. 76. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning  Ordinality:  order relationships between quantities  14–16 months  Cardinality:  when counting, last number is the total  3½–4 years © Michael Jay Berlin/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Individual Differences in Early Childhood Mental Development  Factors contributing to individual differences:  home environment  quality of child care, preschool, or kindergarten  child-centered vs. academic  early intervention programs  educational media © auremar/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Features of a High-Quality Home Environment  Stimulation:  toys, games, reading  language  academic  Physical organization  Emotional support  Modeling and encouragement  Variety in stimulation  No physical punishment © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Types of Preschool Child-Centered  Children select from wide variety of activities  Learn through play Academic  Teachers structure learning  Formal lessons:  letter, numbers, colors, shapes  repetition and drill Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Outcomes of High/Scope Perry Preschool Project Figure 7.12 (Adapted from Schweinhart, 2010; Schweinhart et al., 2005.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Practice  Physical setting  Group size  Caregiver – child ratio  Daily activities  Adult – child interactions  Teacher qualifications  Relationships with parents  Licensing and accreditation Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Educational Media  Television is most common form  Slow-paced, narrative programs are most effective:  gains in early literacy, math skills  more elaborate make-believe play  higher academic achievement  Excessive entertainment TV can be harmful Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Learning with Computers  Can support writing skills  Improves problem solving and metacognition  Excessive use for entertainment can be harmful © InesBazdar/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Language Development in Early Childhood  Vocabulary: fast-mapping  Grammar: overregularization  Conversation: pragmatics  Supporting language development:  recasts  expansions Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Vocabulary Development  Fast-mapping:  object names  verbs  modifiers  Coins new words  Uses metaphors © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Strategies for Word Learning  Mutual exclusivity bias  Shape bias  Cues in sentence structure  Rich social information  Adult explanations © Levranii/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Grammatical Development  Basic rules:  subject–verb–object structure between ages 2 and 3  small additions to sentences to express meaning: “-s,” variations of “to be”  Overregularization  Complex structures: question-asking, passive voice, embedded sentences, indirect objects Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Pragmatics  2-year-olds can engage in effective conversation  By age 4, adjusts speech to fit listener’s age, sex, social status  Challenging situations, such as telephone conversations © Roger costa morera/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Supporting Early Childhood Language  Conversation with adults  Recasts: restructuring inaccurate speech to correct form  Expansions: elaborating on children’s speech © Jenkedco/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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