Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN:

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Is Emotion? Emotion – A four-part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation subjective feelings, and behavioral expression

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Do Our Emotions Do For Us? Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Evolution of Emotions Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression People everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression Display rules – Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Emotion Wheel

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered solutions to many of the long- standing issues in the psychology of emotion Where Do Our Emotions Come From?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Neuroscience of Emotion The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include: The limbic system The reticular formation The cerebral cortex The autonomic nervous system Hormones

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory– An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion Cannon-bard theory – An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time One is not the cause of the other Both the result of a cognitive appraisal of the situation

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion Two-factor theory of emotion – Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and (2) emotion provoking stimulus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotion fear Cognitive interpretation “I feel afraid!” Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate James- Lange theory Cannon- bard theory Two- factor theory Stimulus snake Stimulus Emotion fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion Cognitive appraisal theory – Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Performance LowHigh Low High Arousal Level Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Inverted “U” function – Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Sensation seekers – Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions? Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developing Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence – Ability to understand and control emotional responses Emotional control can be achieved by learning

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Detecting Deception People can also control their emotions to deceive Do “lie detectors” really work? Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector” really an arousal detector

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select and direct our behavior Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivation Motivation Connects observable behavior to internal states Accounts for variability in behavior Explains perseverance despite adversity Relates biology to behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Drive – Biologically instigated motivation Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather that biologically based)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factors Fixed-action patterns – Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation Locus of control – An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maslow’s Humanistic Theory Hierarchy of needs – The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Motivation Overjustification – The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation, because each motive involves its own mix of biological, mental, behavioral, and social/cultural influences How Are Achievement, Hunger, and Sex Alike? Different?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Measuring the Need for Achievement Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Achievement Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Hunger Motivation The multiple-systems approach to hunger Set point – Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Thirst and Pain Volumetric thirst – A drop in extracellular fluid levels Osmotic thirst – A drop in intracellular fluid levels

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Scientific Study of Sexuality Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior Masters and Johnson Sexual response cycle – Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Phases of Human Sexual Response

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sexual Motivation Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated with genital touch and orgasm can become a conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual activity Sexual scripts – Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Approach-approach conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options Approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Avoidance-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options Multiple approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Origins of Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation – One’s erotic attraction toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How and Why Do We Experience Stress? The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiological arousal that normally promote adaptation and survival

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and Stressors Stress – A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation Stressor – a stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Model of Stress

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Traumatic Stressors Traumatic stressor – a situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of feel, horror, or helplessness

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Catastrophe Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages that occur in the wake of natural disasters Psychic numbness Automatic action Communal effort Letdown Recovery

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Posttraumatic Stress Posttraumatic stress disorder – delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response Fight-or-flight response – A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape Tend-and-befriend model – stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Resistance Resistance – the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor Alarm Reaction Alarm reaction – the body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a stressor The General Adaptation Syndrome Exhaustion Illness/death Exhaustion – the body depletes it’s resources Level of normal resistance Successful Resistance

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and the Immune System Immune system – bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and the Immune System Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Personality and Stress Type A – behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations Type B – behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed, unstressed approach to life

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Responses to Stress Learned helplessness – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Responses to Stress Resilience – Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats to development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivating Yourself Flow – An intense focus on an activity, accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelings Involves intrinsic motivation

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 8