Chapter 14: Self-Confidence 14 Self-Confidence C H A P T E R

Session Outline Defining self-confidence Benefits of self-confidence Levels of confidence How expectations influence performance Self-efficacy theory (continued)

Session Outline (continued) Sources of efficacy Modeling and effective demonstrations Assessing self-confidence Coaching efficacy Collective efficacy Building self-confidence

Defining Self-Confidence Self-confidence is the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior. Self-confidence can be both dispositional and statelike. (continued)

Defining Self-Confidence (continued) Dispositional self-confidence is the degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed. State self-confidence is the belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed. (continued)

Video 14.1: Sport Confidence Defined

Defining Self-Confidence (continued) Self-fulfilling prophecy: Expecting something to happen actually helps cause it to happen. Negative self-fulfilling prophecy: This is a psychological barrier whereby the expectation of failure leads to actual failure.

Aspects of Self-Confidence in Sport Vealey and Knight (2002): Confidence about one’s ability to –execute physical skills, –use psychological skills, –employ perceptual skills (e.g., make good decisions), –be fit and highly trained, and –improve one’s skill (learn). (continued)

Aspects of Self-Confidence in Sport (continued) Hays, Maynard, Thomas, and Bawden (2007) –Found additional types of self-confidence in elite athletes, such as belief in their ability to achieve (both winning and improved performance) as well as their belief in their superiority over the opposition. –This underscores the notion of elite athletes having strong beliefs in their abilities and is consistent with the importance of self-belief as seen in the literature on mental toughness.

Robust Sport Confidence This is a set of enduring yet malleable positive beliefs that protect against the ongoing psychological and environmental challenges associated with competitive sport (Thomas, Lane, & Kingston, 2011). It contains a set of beliefs that include multiple types of sport confidence that are intense and stable over time.

Robust Self-Confidence Characteristics Multidimensional Malleable Durable Developed Protective Strong set of beliefs

Benefits of Self-Confidence Arouses positive emotions Facilitates concentration Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals Increases effort (continued)

Benefits of Self-Confidence (continued) Affects game strategies (play to win vs. play to lose) Affects psychological momentum Affects performance

Levels of Confidence Optimal confidence involves being so convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so. Lack of confidence (self-doubt) creates anxiety, breaks concentration, and causes indecisiveness. Overconfidence (false confidence) causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform.

Figure 14.1

Figure 14.2

How Expectations Influence Performance Expectations play a critical role in the behavior change process. Positive expectations of success produce positive effects in many fields, including sport. Self-expectations and performance: The expectation of beating a tough opponent or successfully performing a difficult skill can produce exceptional performance as psychological barriers are overcome. (continued)

How Expectations Influence Performance (continued) Coaches’ and teachers’ expectations are very important. A teacher’s or coach’s expectations can alter a student’s or athlete’s feelings and performance. The expectation-and-performance process occurs in four stages.

Video 14.2: Coach Expectation Athlete Performance Cycle Explanation

Coaches’ Expectations and Athletes’ Performance: Stage 1 Coaches form expectations based on –personal cues (e.g., sex, race, body size) and –performance information (e.g., skill tests, practice behaviors). Problems occur when inaccurate expectations (too high or too low) are formed.

Coaches’ Expectations and Athletes’ Performance: Stage 2 Coaches’ expectations influence their behavior regarding the –frequency and quality of coach–athlete interactions, –quantity and quality of instruction, and –type and frequency of feedback.

Coaches’ Expectations and Athletes’ Performance: Stage 3 Coaches’ behaviors affect athletes’ performance by causing low-expectancy performers to perform more poorly because of less reinforcement, less playing time, less confidence, and attributions to low ability.

Coaches’ Expectations and Athletes’ Performance: Stage 4 Athletes’ performance confirms the coaches’ original expectations. Performance results then feed back into stage 1 of the coaches’ expectations and athlete performance process.

Coaches’ Expectations and Behavior Recommendations –Coaches should determine what sources of information they use to form preseason or early- season expectations for each athlete. –Coaches should realize that their initial assessments of an athlete’s competence may be inaccurate and thus need to be revised continually as the season progresses. (continued)

Coaches’ Expectations and Behavior (continued) Recommendations –During practices, coaches need to keep a running count of the amount of time each athlete spends in non-skill-related activities (e.g., waiting in line) to ensure they treat all athletes fairly. –Coaches should design instructional activities or drills that provide all athletes with an opportunity to improve their skills. (continued)

Coaches’ Expectations and Behavior (continued) Recommendations –Coaches should generally respond to errors with instructions about how to perform the skill correctly. –Coaches should emphasize skill improvement as a means of evaluating and reinforcing individual athletes rather than using absolute performance or levels of skill achievement. (continued)

Coaches’ Expectations and Behavior (continued) Recommendations –Coaches should interact frequently with all athletes on their team to solicit information about athletes’ perceptions, opinions, and attitudes regarding team rules and organization. –Coaches should try to create a mastery-oriented environment in team practices, focusing on improvement and team play. (continued)

Coaches’ Expectations and Behavior (continued) Recommendations –Coaches should communicate their expectations to athletes so athletes are aware of how they are being evaluated. –Coaches should create concrete measures (or use existing measures) to evaluate athlete improvement in psychological factors, which are often difficult to objectively measure.

Self-Efficacy Theory The perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully A situation-specific form of self-confidence

Video 14.3: Self-Efficacy Defined

Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory Self-efficacy provides a model for studying the effects of self-confidence on sport performance, persistence, and behavior. Self-efficacy is important when one has the requisite skills and sufficient motivation. Self-efficacy affects an athlete’s choice of activities, level of effort, and persistence. (continued)

Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory (continued) Although self-efficacy is task specific, it generalizes to other similar skills and situations. People with high self-efficacy set more challenging goals.

Figure 14.3

Sources of Efficacy Performance accomplishments –Accomplishments are the most dependable source. –Successful experiences raise the level of self- efficacy, while failure results in lowered efficacy. Vicarious experiences (modeling): Seeing others or modeling influences efficacy. (continued)

Activity 14.2: Sources of Self-Efficacy

Sources of Efficacy (continued) Verbal persuasion from oneself and others (coaches, teachers, peers) can enhance feelings of self-efficacy. In imaginal experiences, individuals can generate beliefs about personal efficacy or lack of efficacy by imagining themselves or others behaving effectively or ineffectively in future situations. (continued)

Sources of Efficacy (continued) Physiological states influence self-efficacy when they are associated with aversive physiological arousal, poor performance, and perceived failure. Emotional states, or moods, are a source of efficacy information.

Reciprocal Relationship Between Efficacy and Behavior Change Self-efficacy is a determinant of performance and exercise behavior. Performance and exercise behavior determine one’s self-efficacy.

Four-Stage Modeling Process Attention: Careful attention must be given to the model or person observed. Retention: For modeling to occur, the observers must commit the observed acts to memory. (continued)

Four-Stage Modeling Process (continued) Motor reproduction: For modeling of physical skills to occur, the performers must be able to coordinate their muscle activity with their thoughts. Motivation: For modeling to occur, the observers must be motivated to attend to, retain, and practice modeled acts. This stage affects all other stages.

Modeling Modeling (also called observational learning) can influence confidence, leading to enhanced performance, depending on the following factors: –Model similarity –Coach models –Mastery versus coping modeling (continued)

Modeling (continued) –Self-modeling –Multidimensional modeling –Virtual models

Tips for Giving Effective Demonstrations Inform learners of the importance of the skill to the game or activity. Point out a high-status model (e.g., professional athlete) who effectively uses the skill to be modeled. Make sure participants do not face any distractions and that they can all see and hear. (continued)

Tips for Giving Effective Demonstrations (continued) Make eye contact with the learner as you convey instructions about the modeled act. Demonstrate complex skills from several angles (e.g., tennis serve for both left- and right-handed individuals). Focus learners’ attention on only three or four key points of the skill. Repeat demonstrations of complex skills. (continued)

Tips for Giving Effective Demonstrations (continued) Make sure instructions always slightly precede the skill or segment of the skill being demonstrated. Have the learners mentally rehearse what was shown immediately after observing the demonstration. Practice the skill immediately after it has been demonstrated and mentally rehearsed. (continued)

Tips for Giving Effective Demonstrations (continued) Have observers name the subunits (parts) of the skill. Always follow slow-motion demonstrations by giving at least one demonstration performed at full speed. Reinforce correct performance of the modeled act.

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence Mastery: Developing and improving skills Demonstration of ability: Showing ability by winning and outperforming opponents Physical and mental preparation: Staying focused on goals and being prepared to give maximum effort Physical self-presentation: Feeling good about one’s body and weight (continued)

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence (continued) Social support: Getting encouragement from teammates, coaches, and family Coaches’ leadership: Trusting coaches’ decisions and believing in their abilities Vicarious experience: Seeing other athletes perform successfully (continued)

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence (continued) Environmental comfort: Feeling comfortable in the environment where one will perform Situational favorableness: Seeing breaks going one’s way and feeling that everything is going right (continued)

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence (continued) In elite performers, additional sources of self-confidence included –experience (having been there before), –innate factors (natural ability, innate competitiveness), and –competitive advantage (having seen competitors perform poorly or crack under pressure before).

Coaching Efficacy and Its Components The extent to which coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of athletes Components of coaching efficacy –Game strategy –Motivation –Technique –Character building

Building Coaching Efficacy An intervention program to enhance coaching efficacy targeted –Commitment –Communication –Concentration –Control –Confidence

Building Self-Confidence Ensure performance accomplishments –Successful behavior increases confidence and leads to further successful behavior. –Include good physical, technical, and tactical instructions. –Use game-pressure simulations. (continued)

Building Self-Confidence (continued) Act confidently –Instructors and coaches should display confidence. –Teach athletes to display confidence. Respond with confidence –Athletes should focus on responding with control and confidence, as opposed to reacting with emotion or unproductive behaviors. (continued)

Building Self-Confidence (continued) Think confidently –Focus on instruction and motivating thoughts. –Avoid judgmental thoughts. –Focus on remembering good performances, not poor ones. (continued)

Building Self-Confidence (continued) Use imagery: Imagine yourself as confident and successful. Goal mapping: Have personalized goal achievement plans. Training for physical conditioning: Training and physical states are keys to confidence. (continued)

Building Self-Confidence (continued) Prepare: Develop performance plans and precompetitive routines; plans give you confidence because you know what to do. Social climate: Leadership style, types of goals, social support network, and social feedback influence confidence.

Building Team (Collective) Efficacy Before competition: Focus on developing joint perceptions of capabilities and fitness to manage the upcoming competition in a successful manner. During competition: Focus on getting team members believing in one another right before and during the game. After competition: Develop intrateam interpretations of experiences of the game.

Dos and Don’ts for Building Self-Confidence Do maintain a high positive precompetitive environment. Do have high expectations of all your participants. Do set realistic but challenging short- and long-term goals. Do provide lots of contingent, positive feedback and praise. (continued)

Video 14.4: Ways Coaches Can Build Sport Confidence

Dos and Don’ts for Building Self-Confidence (continued) Do structure the environment to provide for early success. Do try to find participants doing something right (don’t just look for their mistakes). Don’t use sarcasm and put-downs to motivate people. (continued)

Dos and Don’ts for Building Self-Confidence (continued) Don’t allow teammates or group members to belittle other team or group members. Don’t criticize participants for inconsequential errors. Don’t embarrass or criticize participants at the first sign of a mistake. Don’t criticize the person; criticize the behavior.