Homework Set #6 10/12/16 Due 10/19/16 Chapter 8 Review questions 2 and 13 Problems 3, 5, 9, and 11 Extra Problem Problem 1. What would the Sun’s lifetime be based only on using up the available fuel (hydrogen) in the proton-proton chain fusion reaction and assuming the luminosity doesn’t change?

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Radio Interferometry The Very Large Array (VLA): 27 dishes are combined to simulate a large dish of 36 km in diameter. Even larger arrays consist of dishes spread out over the entire U.S. (VLBA = Very Long Baseline Array) or even the whole Earth (VLBI = Very Long Baseline Interferometry)!

PHYS Astronomy Most sensitive VLBI array in the world - European VLBI Network (EVN). brings together the largest European radiotelescopes for typically week-long sessions Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) uses ten dedicated, 25-meter telescopes spanning 5351 miles across the United States the largest VLBI array that operates all year round as both an astronomical and geodesy instrument. Global VLBI Combination of the EVN and VLBA Space Very Long Baseline Interferometry (SVLBI) dedicated VLBI placed in Earth orbit to provide greatly extended baselines. HALCA, an 8 meter radio telescope - launched in February made observations until October 2003, small size of the dish - only very strong radio sources could be observed with Spektr-R (or RadioAstron) - launched in July When Global VLBI combined with one or more space-based VLBI antennas gives resolution of microarcseconds.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Science of Radio Astronomy Radio astronomy reveals several features, not visible at other wavelengths: - neutral hydrogen clouds (which don’t emit any visible light), containing ~ 90 % of all the atoms in the Universe. - molecules (often located in dense clouds, where visible light is completely absorbed). - Radio waves penetrate gas and dust clouds, so we can observe regions from which visible light is heavily absorbed.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Atmospheric Distortion Animation Atmospheric Distortion The turbulence (ever-changing motion) of the atmosphere causes distortion - twinkling of starlight. Bends light in constantly shifting patterns. Like looking down the road on a hot day and seeing distant cars rippling and distorting. Why best viewing is when it is cold and calm.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Adaptive Optics (AO) It is possible to “de-twinkle” a star. The wavefronts of a star’s light rays are deformed by the atmosphere. By monitoring the distortions of the light from a nearby bright star (or a laser): –a computer can deform the secondary mirror in the opposite way. –the wavefronts, when reflected, are restored to their original state. AO mirror offAO mirror on Angular resolution improves. These two stars are separated by 0.38  Without AO, we see only one star.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy

The Sun

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Sun’s Energy Source The first scientific theories involved chemical reactions or gravitational collapse. - chemical burning ruled out…it can not account for the Sun’s luminosity - conversion of gravitational potential energy into heat as the Sun contracts would only keep the Sun shining for 25 million years -late 19 th -century geological research indicated the Earth was older than that Development of nuclear physics led to the correct answer - the Sun generates energy via nuclear fusion reactions - Hydrogen is converted into Helium in the Sun’s core - the mass lost in this conversion is transformed into energy - the amount of energy is given by Einstein’s equation: E = mc 2 - given the Sun’s mass, this will provide enough energy for the Sun to shine for 10 billion years

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Striking a Balance The Sun began as a cloud of gas undergoing gravitational collapse. - the same heating process, once proposed to power the Sun, did cause the core of the Sun to get hot and dense enough to start nuclear fusion reactions Once begun, the fusion reactions generated energy which provided an outward pressure. This pressure perfectly balances the inward force of gravity. - deep inside the Sun, the pressure is strongest where gravity is strongest - near the surface, the pressure is weakest where gravity is weakest This balance is called gravitational equilibrium. - it causes the Sun’s size to remain stable

PHYS-3380 Astronomy One second of output from the Sun (luminosity) would provide power for the human race for the next 500,000 years

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Layers of the Sun

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Core T = 1.5 x 10 7 K; depth = 0 – 0.25 R  Density - up to 150,000 kg/m³ (154 times the density of water on Earth) Pressure 200 billion times that on the surface of Earth This is where the Sun’s energy is generated.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Why does fusion occur in the Sun’s core ? Nuclear fusion - a reaction where heavier nuclei are created by combining (fusing) lighter nuclei. - all nuclei are positively charged Electromagnetic force causes nuclei to repel each other. - for fusion to occur, nuclei must be moving fast enough to overcome E- M repulsion - this requires high temperatures and pressures When nuclei touch, the nuclear force binds them together

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Energy Generation in the Sun: The Proton-Proton Chain Basic reaction: 4 1 H  4 He + energy Need large proton speed (  high temperature) to overcome Coulomb barrier (electromagnetic repulsion between protons). Sun needs reactions, transforming 5 million tons of mass into energy every second, to resist its own gravity. T ≥ K = 10 million 0 K

PHYS-3380 Astronomy 1. 1 H + 1 H  2 H + e two protons fuse to make deuterium - one of the protons turns into a neutron and releases energy in the form of a positron and a neutrino - average time for this step - 1 billion years neutrino carries up to 0.42 MeV the positron annihilates with an electron, creating two gamma rays MeV Note: In a free state the neutron is unstable with a half-life of about 12 minutes, decaying into a proton, an electron, and an anti-neutrino H + 1 H  3 He +  - the deuterium then combines with another proton, releasing a gamma ray and giving a nucleus of helium MeV - average time for this step - 1 second p+p+ n + e + + (inverse  -decay) The Three Step Process n p + + e - + (  -decay)

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Three Step Process 3. 3 He + 3 He  4 He + 1 H + 1 H - the helium-3 nucleus fuses with another helium-3 to form normal helium MeV - sets free two protons to start the whole process again. - average time for this step - 1 million years Total energy  26.7 MeV M proton = 1.67 X kg M He4(nucleus) = X kg 4(M proton ) - M He4(nucleus) = 4.74 X kg E = mc 2 = (4.74 X kg)( X 10 8 m/s) 2 = 4.26 X J (4.26 X J)(1 eV/ X J)=26.7 MeV

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Proton-Proton Chain Animation

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Energy in form of: Gamma rays - take one to 10 million years to work their way out from the star's core - scattered numerous times - lose energy as they go, heating the gas -eventually emerge from the surface as rays of light and heat. Positrons - annihilate with free electrons - produce gamma rays Energy of motion of particles - raises temperature of gas Neutrinos - almost never interact - escape - do not contribute to heating Inside the Sun, about 655 million tons of hydrogen are converted into 650 million tons of helium every second. In stars heavier than about 2 solar masses, in which the core temperature is more than about 18 million K, the dominant process in which energy is produced by the fusion of hydrogen into helium is a different reaction chain known as the carbon-nitrogen cycle.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Solar Luminosity The Sun’s luminosity is stable over the short-term. However, as more Hydrogen fuses into Helium: - four H nuclei convert into one He nucleus - the number of particles in Sun’s core decreases with time - the Sun’s core will contract, causing it to heat up - the fusion rate will increase to balance higher gravity - a new equilibrium is reached for stability at a higher energy output - the Sun’s luminosity increases with time over the long-term Models indicate the Sun’s luminosity has increased 30% since it formed 4.6 billion years ago. - it has gone from 2.9 x watts to today’s 3.8 x watts

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The proton-proton chain is common path to making helium in the Sun, but not the only one. After Step 2 is complete, other reactions can take place -- the PPII chain (31% of the time): 3 He + 4 He  7 Be +  7 Be + e -  7 Li + 7 Li + 1 H  4 He + 4 He Or even the PPIII chain(rare, 0.3% of the time): 7 Be + 1 H  8 B +  8 B  8 Be + e Be  4 He + 4 He Other Helium Production Paths in the Sun

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Energy Production Nuclear fusion can produce energy up to the production of iron. For elements heavier than iron, energy is gained by nuclear fission. Binding energy due to strong force = on short range, strongest of the 4 known forces: electromagnetic, weak, strong, gravitational Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons, but the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons which constitute it. The difference is a measure of the nuclear binding energy which holds the nucleus together.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Neutrino Problem Neutrinos come to us directly from the core of the Sun, a product of the proton-proton chain. We have detected them, proving that the theory of nuclear fusion reactions is correct. But we only detected about 30% - 50% of the neutrinos which were predicted by theoretical models. - either our understanding of nuclear fusion reactions or our understanding of neutrinos was wrong. We have since discovered three types (“flavors”)of neutrinos: - electron ( e ), muon (  ), and tau (  ) -most neutrino detectors can register only electron neutrinos -if neutrinos can change type (“oscillate”) after being created, this would solve the “neutrino problem.” In Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Ontario came on line - capable of detecting all three types - observations proved neutrino oscillation

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Interior Zones T < 8 x 10 6 K; depth = 0.25 – 0.86 R  Energy is transported through the interior. The interior is divided into two zones: - Radiation Zone - energy is transported outward by photons - Convection Zone - energy is convected outward by rising hot gas and falling cool gas Boundary between them is at: T = 2 x 10 6 K; depth = 0.70 R 

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Methods of Energy Transport Radiation Zone - energy travels as photons of light, which continually collide with particles - always changing direction (random walk), photons can change wavelengths - this is called radiative diffusion This is a slow process! It takes about 1 million years for energy to travel from the core to the surface.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Energy Transport Convection zone - photons arriving at bottom of convection zone are absorbed instead of scattered by matter - the bottom of the zone is heated - hot gas rises to the top - cooler gas sinks to the bottom -energy is brought to the surface via bulk motions of matter – convection -Convection motions are visible at the surface as granules

Energy Transport Convection zone - photons arriving at bottom of convection zone are absorbed instead of scattered by matter as in the radiation zone - the bottom of the zone is heated - hot gas rises to the top - cooler gas sinks to the bottom -energy is brought to the surface via bulk motions of matter – convection -Convection motions are visible at the surface as granules

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Photosphere T = 5,800 K; depth = 400 km This is the yellow “surface” that we see.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Photospheric Features Granulation: the tops of convection cells seen “bubbling” on the Solar surface Sunspots: dark spots on the surface where the temperature is cooler. Regions of strong magnetic fields - suppress convection from below Sunspots occur in pairs - magnetic fields loop from one sunspot to a neighboring sunspot

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Close up of a sunspot A sunspot is cooler than the rest of the Sun’s surface and looks darker. They last anywhere from hours to months.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Sunspots and the Sun’s surface can change very quickly - this movie covers half an hour.

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Solar Activity The photosphere of the Sun is covered with sunspots. Sunspots are not constant; they appear and disappear. They do so in a cycle. It repeats every 11 yrs. - Sun’s magnetic field switches polarity every 11 yrs - so the entire cycle repeats every 22 yrs

PHYS-3380 Astronomy 11-Year Solar Cycle

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Sunspot Cycle

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Two official sunspot numbers in common use: Daily Boulder Sunspot Number - computed by the NOAA Space Environment Center using a formula devised by Rudolph Wolf in 1848: R=k (10g+s) g is the number of sunspot groups on the solar disk, s is the total number of individual spots in all the groups; and k is a variable scaling factor (usually <1) that accounts for observing conditions and the type of telescope (binoculars, space telescopes, etc.). Scientists combine data from lots of observatories -- each with its own k factor -- to arrive at a daily value. The Boulder number usually about 25% higher than the second official index, the International Sunspot Number, published daily by the Sunspot Index Data Center in Belgium. Both calculated from the same basic formula, but they incorporate data from different observatories. Sunspot Number

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Latest Sunspot Number Plot and Prediction

PHYS-3380 Astronomy Today’s Sun

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Maunder Minimum Historical data indicate a very quiet phase of the sun, ~ 1650 – 1700: The Maunder Minimum The sun spot number also fluctuates on much longer time scales:

PHYS-3380 Astronomy The Maunder Minimum Coincided with the middle - and coldest part - of the so-called Little Ice Age Europe and North America, and perhaps much of the rest of the world, were subjected to bitterly cold winters. Causal connection between low sunspot activity and cold winters subject of ongoing debate Lower solar activity during the Maunder Minimum also affected the amount of cosmic radiation reaching the Earth resulted in change in the production of carbon-14 during that period caused an inaccuracy in radiocarbon dating until this effect was discovered. Study based on an analysis of a Flamsteed drawing, suggests that Sun's rotation slowed in the deep Maunder minimum

The Frozen Thames in 1677