Chapter 1 Ocean Exploration

Oceanography – the science of recording and describing the ocean’s contents and processes. There are four main branches of oceanography. Biological oceanography – studies life in the ocean. (species, predation, symbiosis, behavior) Chemical oceanography – studies the chemistry of seawater. (pH, density, pollutants, salinity) Geological oceanography – studies the geology of the ocean. (underwater mountains, trenches, map making, plate tectonics, ) Physical oceanography – studies the physics within the marine environment. (waves, tides, earthquakes, currents, temperatures)

The history of oceanography can be divided into four stages: 1. Ancient Seafaring (5000 B.C A.D.) 2. The Middle Ages ( ) 3. European Exploration ( ) 4. Modern Oceanography ( present)

1) Ancient Seafaring Three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean: 1. To obtain food. 2. To discover new lands. 3. As a means of trade. The earliest recorded sea voyage appears to be 3200 B.C. under the Egyptian Pharaoh Snefru.

Greeks The Greeks used references on shore to navigate. This is called piloting. As seafaring advanced they learned to use the sun, constellations, the North Star and sea conditions to navigate in the open ocean. The Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere, not flat.

Greeks cont… Pytheas (314 B.C.) predicted tides in the Atlantic based on the phases of the moon. He could determine how far North or South one was from the North Star by measuring the angle between the horizon and the North Star. This was a significant improvement in navigation. Eratosthenes ( B.C.) is credited with two contributions: 1. He calculated the Earth’s circumference (however, incorrectly). 2. He invented the first latitude/longitude system.

Latitude/Longitude System The purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system is to identify specific locations on the Earth’s surface. Latitude Lines Also called parallels Run east-west 0º parallel is also called the equator Longitude Lines Also called meridians Run north-south Prime Meridian is located on the longitude of the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England. 0 0 longitude Further Accuracy Degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes, minutes are subdivided into 60 seconds.

Film clip: Pirate Navigators:

2) The Middle Ages AKA: The Dark Ages Viking Explorations and Discoveries The Vikings were the only people with significant exploration taking place in Europe during the Dark Ages: They discovered: Iceland in 700 AD Greenland in995 AD Vineland (Nova Scotia) 1000 AD Ships were noteably fast and strong. They were know for their raiding and plundering before colonizing.

Chinese Discoveries in the Middle Ages Magnetic compass dating about 1000 A.D Chinese ships from that period had central rudders and watertight compartments. Admiral Zheng He commanded the greatest fleet the world had known. 317 ships and 27,500 men undertook seven mission. Their aim: to display the wealth and power of the young Ming dynasty and to show kindness to distant people.

3) European Voyages of Discovery The period of is called the Renaissance. A new interest in long ocean expeditions and travel in the 15th century was motivated by economics, politics and religion. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal established a center to study navigation. His expeditions were the 1 st European to use a compass.

Europeans cont… The New World Christopher Columbus took the first of his four voyages to find a route to Asia in He believed he’d found Asia when he landed on a Caribbean island. Between , Amerigo Vespucci is credited as the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent. In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world. He had five ships and about 260 men. Only 34 men survived the journey, Magellan was not one of them. : (

Columbus Magellan

Film: The Great Age of ExplorationAge After watching the film, compose 2 paragraphs describing: the benefits that came to countries by exploring the oceans. the harm that came to countries from ocean exploration. Disclaimer: This video repeatedly and falsely suggests that people of the Renaissance believed the Earth was flat.

1 st Oceanography 1770’s - The voyages of Captain James Cook receive credit as the first sea expeditions devoted to methodical, scientific oceanography. He discovered Australia, New Zealand, many islands in the South Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, charted the Great barrier Reef and took notes on human, animal and plant life. A major contribution to Cook’s voyages was the invention of the chronometer. In 1735, John Harrison invented a clock that runs accurately at sea. This made it possible to determine longitude accurately.

U.S. Exploring Expedition Commanded Lt. Charles Wilkes aboard USS Vincinnes. Proved the existence of Antarctica. Returned with 19 volumes on new maps, descriptions, and illustrations. 1 st time scientist were PAID to explore the oceans The Father of Physical Oceanography Matthew Maury Between , Matthew Maury earned global acclaim for his study on ocean currents. In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of the Sea, which is now considered the first textbook on modern oceanography.

Charles Wilkes Matthew Maury

The HMS Challenger Expedition ( ) Recognized as the first worldwide oceanographic expedition. Expedition devoted entirely to marine study. Scottish professor Sir Charles Wyville Thomson and British naturalist Sir John Murray. Among its discoveries, the expedition: Deepest soundings taken to date – 8,200 meters (26,900 feet) in the Marianas Trench. Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean, contrary to popular belief at the time. Compiled the first systematic plots of currents and ocean temperatures. Cataloged and identified 4,717 new species.

Biography: John Harrison JOHN HARRISON AND THE FINDING OF LONGITUDE After reading, write a paragraph describing what longitude is, why it’s hard to find, and how the problem of finding it was solved.

Read “the longitude problem” pgs so that you may answer the following questions. Read pgs You do not need to write the questions. Answer in complete sentences. 1) How did European explorers find latitude at sea? 2) How do you find longitude with a clock? 3) Why was it hard to find longitude at sea? 4) What happens to clocks at sea? 5) What did the British government do in 1714? 6) What were the requirements for the prize? 7) Who solved the problem? 8) What was his invention called? 9) Why didn’t he get paid after winning the prize? 10) When did he finally get paid? 11) What event allowed him to get paid? 12) Where are his 4 inventions located today? 13) Why is that site significant?

4) 20 th Century Marine Science The Industrial Revolution spearheaded the growth and expansion of marine sciences. This included: Better ships made of iron with steam engines. Improvements in the design and building of research equipment. The advent of the submarine. Global conflict helping to accelerate research in science and technology.

Three 20 th Century Expeditions The German Meteor Expedition (1925) Mapped the Atlantic seafloor with echo-sounding technology. The U.S. Atlantis Expedition – 1931 The first ship specifically designed and built for ocean studies. Confirmed the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and mapped it. The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951 Found the deepest known part of the ocean. At 10,838 meters (35,558 feet) deep, still the deepest known place in the world. This spot, located in the Marianas Trench, was named Challenger Deep in honor of the first Challenger expedition.

Modern Oceanography Newer devices for scientists SONAR, which bounces sound waves off the ocean floor, is used to study depth and shape of the seafloor Satellites in space help relay information and track location with GPS, make maps of the ocean floor, track ocean temperatures and currents Remote submersibles go to deep ocean to explore without the need for humans

SONAR Sound Navigation and Ranging provided a rapid method of looking through water to identify features in the water beneath a vessel and on the sea floor.

Submarines

The Trieste explored the Mariana’s Trench in 1960 (HOV) Hercules ROV Alvin explored the Titanic/Hydrothermal Vents (HOV)

Oceanic Institutions An early laboratory in Naples, Italy allowed study of the ocean without being in the ocean Scripps Institute was founded in La Jolla, CA Woods Hole Institute was founded on Cape Cod of Massachusetts Our local marine lab is Grice Marine Laboratory Located at Ft. Johnson on James island. Operated by the College of Charleston.

Famous Modern Oceanographers In 1943, Jacques Cousteau introduced the first practical scuba. Robert Ballard found the Titanic(1985) and other wrecks. Lee Spence discovered of the Civil War submarine H.L. Hunley in James Cameron self-funded his expedition to the bottom of the Marianas Trench in 2012.

Use Table 1.1 on pg. 34 to create a timeline. Include the events that occurred on the following dates. Color code and label the 4 oceanographic stages. 100 yrs = 1 cm 300 BC 230 BC 127 BC 500 AD 780 AD 1492 AD 1522 AD 1760 AD 1768 AD 1831 AD 1855 AD 1872 AD 1911 AD 1943 AD 1977 AD 1985 AD