© 2010 Alan S. Berger1 Sociology: The systematic study of the relationship between the individual and society and of the consequences of different types of relationships. What Is Sociology?

© 2006 Alan S. Berger2 What Is Sociology? Sociology Focuses on: –How social relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior –How major social institutions affect us –How we affect other individuals, groups, and organizations

Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology {Theory = A set of logically-related statements that attempt to describe, explain, & sometimes predict events In sociology, what are some “events” that theorists would try to explain? (Examples).}

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical perspectives are the basic assumptions about how society functions, the role of sociology, and the application of a specific set theories in studying social life © 2006 Alan S. Berger4

Why do we need a Sociological Perspective? To help us to see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals To offers insights about the social world that extend far beyond explanations that rely on individual quirks and personalities

Sociological Imagination “...the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society.” going beyond the individual and understanding how structural forces shape individuals and their action.

© 2010 Alan S. Berger7 Three general theoretical orientations or perspectives for the study of society Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology –Structural-Functionalism perspective –Conflict perspective –Interactionist perspective

Structural Functionalism Popularized by American sociologist Talcott Parsons in the 1940’s Society is a stable arrangement of parts that fit together Social is glued together by shared values Each part contributes to the overall function Macro-level focus Talcott Parsons,

Structural Functionalism Visualized Society ReligionEducation The Family Judicial System

The Structural Functionalism Model Social structures provide pre-set patterns, which evolve to meet human needs. Stability, Order and Harmony Maintenance of Society

© 2006 Alan S. Berger11 The Structural-Functionalist Perspective Parts of a social system work together to maintain a balance –Functions are actions that have positive consequences –Dysfunctions are actions that have negative consequences –Manifest functions are intended –Latent functions are unintended

© 2010 Alan S. Berger12 Structural Functionalism ● The structural-functional theory is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. - It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures (relatively stable patterns of social behavior). - Each social structure has social functions, or consequences, for the operation of society as a whole. - Key figures in the development of this paradigm include Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton

Structural Functionalism ● Robert Merton introduced three concepts related to social function: manifest functions, the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern latent functions, largely unrecognized and unintended consequences and social dysfunctions, undesirable consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society. ● The influence of this paradigm has declined in recent decades. It focuses on stability, thereby ignoring inequalities of social class, race, and gender © 2006 Alan S. Berger13

Real World Application: Functionalist Perspective and Marriage The traditional family structure in which the husband was a breadwinner and the wife tended children and did housework was ‘functional’. Men could earn more income and women were naturally better at childcare and thus, the traditional family structure worked.

© 2010 Alan S. Berger15 The Conflict Perspective Society is held together by who has power at a moment in time –Power allows some to dominate others –Dominance leads to conflict –Conflict and change are inevitable –Conflict holds society together as new alliances are formed and others fail

The Conflict Perspective Karl Marx, Originated with the German economist/historian Karl Marx, the ‘father of communism’ Social groups (i.e. workers and capitalists, men and women) struggle for scarce resources and power Conflict is normal, stability and order are not Macro-level focus

© 2010 Alan S. Berger17 Social Conflict ●The social-conflict paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. -Most sociologists who favor the conflict paradigm attempt not only to understand society but also to reduce social inequality -Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Wright Mills ●

Conflict Perspective Visualized MenWomen European Americans Racial minorities WorkersManagement

Real World Application: Conflict Perspective and Marriage The male breadwinner model benefits men in 2 ways (among others): It reduces potential competition from women in the labor market It downplays women's contributions in domestic work This model demonstrates that men have the upper hand in society

© 2010 Alan S. Berger 20 The Symbolic Interaction Perspective Individuals construct the nature of their social world through social interaction –Social life is possible only because humans can communicate through symbols –All human communications take place through the perception and interpretation of symbols –How people define situations is important –There is a general consensus on how situations are defined –We do not respond directly to reality but to the symbolic meanings we attach to the real world

Symbolic Interaction Model IndividualInteractionIndividual Analysis of the Interaction by other Persons

Symbolic Interaction Model IndividualInteractionIndividual Analysis of the Interaction by other Persons

© 2006 Alan S. Berger23 Symbolic Interaction ● The symbolic-interaction paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. –The structural-functional and the social-conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning that they focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole. In contrast, symbolic- interactionism has a micro-level orientation; it focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings. –Key figures in the development of this paradigm include –George Herbert Mead –Erving Goffman –George Homans –Peter Blau

Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism attempts to explain more clearly how individuals actually experience society. However, it has two weaknesses: Its micro-orientation sometimes results in the error of ignoring the influence of larger social structures. By emphasizing what is unique, it risks overlooking the effects of culture, class, gender, and race. © 2010 Alan S. Berger24

© 2006 Alan S. Berger25 Table 1.1 (p. 15) Comparison of Three Theoretical Perspectives

Sociological Theory: Individual and Society Functionalism Individuals occupy fixed social roles. Conflict Theory Individuals subordinated to society. Symbolic Interaction Individual and society are interdependent.

Sociological Theory: View of Inequality Functionalism Inevitable; functional for society Conflict Theory Result of struggle over scarce resources. Symbolic Interaction Inequality demonstrated through meaning of status symbols.

Sociological Theory: Basis of Social Order Functionalism Consensus on common values. Conflict TheoryPower; coercion Symbolic Interaction Collective meaning systems; society created through social interaction

Sociological Theory: Source of Social Change Functionalism Disorganization and adjustment to achieve equilibrium. Conflict TheoryStruggle; competition Symbolic Interaction Ever-changing web of relationships and meaning of things.

Sociological Theory: Criticisms FunctionalismA conservative view of society that underplays power differences among and between groups. Conflict TheoryUnderstates the degree of cohesion and stability in society. Symbolic Interaction There is little analysis of inequality and it overstates the subjective basis of society.

© 2010 Alan S. Berger31 Contemporary ways of applying sociological Perspectives ● Critical Theory which grew out of a dissatisfaction with 20th-century sociology in general and Marxism in particular ● Feminism intellectual movement in the humanities and social sciences that is having a profound impact on the nature and direction of sociology ● Postmodernism which expresses a deep distrust of science and the principle of objectivity. ● Today’s leading theorists Talcott Parsons Robert Merton C. Wright Mills Paul Lazarsfeld

© 2010 Alan S. Berger32 Applying Paradigms of Sociology to Sports The Functions of Sports –The structural-functional approach looks at how sports help society function smoothly. Manifest functions of sports include providing recreation, a means of getting in –physical shape, and a relatively harmless way to let off steam. Latent functions of sports include building social relationships and creating –thousands of jobs

Sports and Conflict The social-conflict approach looks at the links between sports and social inequality. Historically, sports have benefited men more than women. Some sports are accessible mainly to affluent people. Racial discrimination exists in professional sports © 2006 Alan S. Berger33

Sports as Interaction The social-interaction approach looks at the different meanings and understandings people have of sports. Within a team, players affect each other’s understanding of the sport. The reaction of the public can affect how players perceive their sport. © 2006 Alan S. Berger34

© 2010 Alan S. Berger35 Sociology’s Four Realms Basic Science –Expanding knowledge Critical Sociology –Debate, argument, and controversy Applied Research –Application of knowledge to real-world problems Public Activism –Working for social change

© 2006 Alan S. Berger36 Pursuing Social Change In early 1900s, many leading U.S. sociologists saw themselves as social reformers Early female sociologists took active roles in poor urban areas –Jane Addams (1860–1935) and Ida Wells- Barnett prevented racial segregation in Chicago public schools –W. E. B. Du Bois cofounded NAACP

© 2006 Alan S. Berger37 Applied sociology: use of the discipline of sociology with the intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations Practicing Sociology Clinical sociology: dedicated to facilitating change by altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions

© 2010 Alan S. Berger38 Globalization: worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas –Our lives are more connected with and interdependent upon diverse groups of people Social problems must be addressed before they overwhelm the world Using the Sociological Imagination