Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Piaget’s Cognitive- Developmental Perspective In order to understand children, we must understand how they think because thinking influences all of behavior. Children and adults are active explorers who learn by interacting with the world, building their own understanding of everyday phenomena, and applying it to adapt to the world around them. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Cognitive-Developmental Concepts Schemas Concepts, ideas, and ways of interacting on the world Cognitive development is the result of: Assimilation Integrating a new experience into a preexisting schema Accommodation Changing a schema by adapting and modifying it in light of the new information LO 5.1. Define cognitive schemas, and explain the processes by which infants and toddlers modify their cognitive schemas. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Cognitive Equilibrium A balance between the processes of assimilation and accommodation When assimilation and accommodation are balanced, individuals are neither incorporating new information into their schemas nor changing their schemas in light of new information. LO 5.1. Define cognitive schemas, and explain the processes by which infants and toddlers modify their cognitive schemas. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Cognitive Disequilibrium A mismatch between schemas and the world Occurs more frequently than cognitive equilibrium Leads to cognitive growth The mismatch leads to confusion and discomfort, which in turn motivate children to modify their cognitive schemas so that their view of the world matches reality LO 5.1. Define cognitive schemas, and explain the processes by which infants and toddlers modify their cognitive schemas. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Substages of Sensorimotor Reasoning Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor skills. Six substages in which cognition develops from reflexes to intentional action to symbolic representation. Reflexes (Birth -1 month) Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Coordination of secondary schemas (8-12 months) Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) Mental representation (18-24 months) LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. Substage 1: Reflexes Birth – 1 month Newborns use their reflexes to react to stimuli they experience LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions 1 – 4 months Infants begin to make accidental discoveries. Circular reactions are the repetition of an action and its response. Primary circular reactions consist of repeating actions that begin by chance or by accident involving the parts of the body that produce pleasurable or interesting results. LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions 4 – 8 months Repetitions of actions that trigger responses in the external environment, outside of the baby’s body The patterns of repetition include objects and are oriented toward making interesting events occur in the infant’s environment. LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemas 8 – 12 months Represents true means-end behaviors and signifies the beginning of intentional behavior Infants purposefully coordinate two secondary circular reactions and apply them in new situations to achieve a goal. Object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist outside of sensory awareness, occurs in substage 4. LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions 12-18 months Infants engage in active, purposeful trial-and-error exploration to search for new discoveries; they vary their actions to see how the changes affect the outcomes. Piaget described infants as “little scientists” during this period because they move from intentional behavior to systematic exploration. LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Substage 6: Mental Representation 18-24 months Infants develop representational thought, the ability to use symbols such as words and mental pictures to represent objects and actions in memory. For example, infants can engage in deferred imitation, imitating actions of an absent model. A transition between the sensorimotor and preoperational reasoning stages. LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

VIDEO CASE Object Permanence 7-month-old Nicho and 10-month-old Damian illustrate developmental changes in infants’ understanding of object permanence. At 7 months of age, Nicho does not search for the hidden horse. However, Damian successfully locates the horse, even when presented with the A-not-B search task. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Table 5.1: Substages of Sensorimotor Reasoning LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Research on Object Permanence: Violation-of-Expectation Method A task in which a stimulus appears to violate physical laws If the infant looks longer at the unexpected event, it suggest that he or she is surprised by it, is aware of physical properties of objects, and can mentally represent them. LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Research on Object Permanence: A-Not-B Error The A-not-B error occurs when infants are able to uncover a toy hidden behind a barrier, yet when they observe the toy moved from behind one barrier (Place A) to another (Place B), they look for the toy in the first place it was hidden. LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. Figure 5.3: A-Not-B Error LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Research on Imitation: Deferred Imitation Tasks The ability to repeat an act performed some time ago Piaget believed that, because infants lack mental representation abilities, infants under 18 months cannot engage in deferred imitation. Laboratory research on facial imitation has found that 6-week-old infants are capable of deferred imitation. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Core Knowledge Perspective Infants are born with several innate knowledge systems or core domains of thought that enable early rapid learning and adaptation. LO 5.4. Discuss the core knowledge perspective as it applies to infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Information Processing Cognition is a set of interrelated components that permit people to process information. To notice, take in, manipulate, store, and retrieve it LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Mental Stores in Information Processing: Sensory Memory Holds incoming sensory information in its original form Information fades from sensory memory quickly if it is not processed (even as quick as fractions of a second). Newborn sensory memory is much shorter in duration than adults’ memory. LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Mental Stores in Information Processing: Working Memory Working memory is also called short-term memory. Holds and processes information that is being “worked on” in some way Manipulating, encoding, or retrieving information Responsible for maintaining and processing information used in many complex cognitive tasks LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Working memory is “worked on” through manipulating information (considering, comprehending), encoding information (transforming into a memory), or retrieving information (recalling). Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Important Part of Working Memory Central executive A control processor that directs the flow of information and regulates cognitive activities such as attention, action, and problem solving LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Mental Stores in Information Processing: Long-Term Memory An unlimited store that holds information indefinitely Information is not manipulated or processed in long-term memory; it is simply stored until it is retrieved to manipulate in working memory. LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 5.4: Information Processing System LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Information Processing Skill: Attention The ability to direct one’s awareness Infant attention is often studied using: Preferential looking procedures Measuring the length of time infants look at two stimuli Habituation procedures Measuring the length of time it takes infants to habituate to looking at a nonchanging stimulus By about 10 weeks of age, infants show gains in attention LO 5.6. Describe developmental changes in infants’ capacities for attention and memory. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Information Processing Skill: Memory The ability to focus and switch attention is critical for selecting information to process in working memory. Infants have basic memory capacities common to children and adults, but they are most likely to remember events when they take place in familiar contexts and when the infants are actively engaged; emotional engagement also enhances infants’ memory. LO 5.6. Describe developmental changes in infants’ capacities for attention and memory. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Information Processing Skill: Categorization Grouping different stimuli from a common class An adaptive mental process that allows for: Organizing storage of information in memory Efficient retrieval of that information Capacity to respond with familiarity to new stimuli from a common class Infants naturally categorize information. LO 5.7. Examine how infants’ categorization skills change with development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. Table 5.2: Summary of Changes in Information Processing Skills During Infancy LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Testing Approach to Intelligence The most often used standardized measure of infant intelligence is the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III (BSID-III) Appropriate for infants from 1 month through 42 months of age LO 5.8. Discuss how intelligence is measured in infancy and findings regarding infant intelligence. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Figure 5.6: Bayley-III Scales (BSID-III) LO 5.7. Examine how infants’ categorization skills change with development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

The Bayley Scales of Infant Development III Five scales Motor scale (Infant response) Cognitive scale (infant response) Language scale (infant response) Social-emotional scale (parent response) Adaptive behavior (parent response) The BSID-III provides a comprehensive profile of an infant’s current functioning. LO 5.8. Discuss how intelligence is measured in infancy and findings regarding infant intelligence. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Information Processing Approach to Intelligence Infants who process information more efficiently are thought to acquire knowledge more quickly. Information processing capacities – such as attention, memory, and processing speed – in infancy predict cognitive ability and intelligence through late adolescence. LO 5.8. Discuss how intelligence is measured in infancy and findings regarding infant intelligence. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications. Language Development Gaining the ability to use words to represent objects, experience, thoughts, and feelings permits children to think and to communicate with others in increasingly flexible and adaptive ways. Receptive language What babies can understand Exceeds their productive language Productive language What babies can produce themselves LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Language Development: Prelinguistic Communication Crying Cooing (between 2 and 3 months) Deliberate vowel sounds For example: Ahhhh, ohhhh, eeeeeeee Babbling (6 months of age) Repeating strings of consonants and vowels For example: Ba-ba-ba-ba and ma-ma-ma Universal LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Language Development: First Words About one year of age Holophrases One-word expressions to express a complete thought A first word might be a complete word or a syllable. LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Language Development: Learning Words Fast mapping A process of quickly acquiring and retaining a word after hearing it applied a few times Improves with age Accounts for the naming explosion (vocabulary spurt) A period of rapid vocabulary learning that occurs between 16 and 24 months of age LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Language Development: Two Kinds of Mistakes in Learning Words Underextension Applying a word more narrowly than it is usually applied so that the word’s use is restricted to a single object For example, ball might refer only to footballs but not to the general class of balls Overextension Applying a word too broadly For example, cow might refer to all farm animals LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Language Development: Two-Word Utterances Begins around 21 months of age Telegraphic speech Speaking like a telegram, only including a few essential words Universal among toddlers LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Table 5.3: Language Milestones LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Theories of Language Development Learning theory and language acquisition Language is learned through operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment. Nativist theory and language acquisition The human brain has an innate capacity to learn language. Language acquisition device (LAD) – an innate facilitator of language and storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages (universal grammar). LO 5.10. Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Theories of Language Development (Continued) Interactionist perspective on language acquisition Language development is a complex process that is influenced by both maturation and context. LO 5.10. Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Biological Contributions to Language Acquisition Brain (left hemisphere) Broca’s area – controls the ability to use language for expression Wernicke’s area – responsible for language comprehension LO 5.10. Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Contextual Contributions to Language Acquisition Canonical babbling A type of babbling with well-formed syllables that sounds like language Parents tune in and treat the vocalizations in a new way. Parent responsiveness to infants’ vocalizations predicts: The size of infants’ vocabularies The diversity of infants’ communications The timing of language milestones LO 5.10. Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

Contextual Contributions (Continued) Infant-directed speech Also known as “motherese” The use of shorter words and sentences Higher an more varied pitch Repetitions A slower rate Longer pauses Expansions – Parents enrich versions of the child’s statement. Recast – Children’s sentences are restated into new grammatical forms. LO 5.10. Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

VIDEO CASE Developmental Milestones: Parent Views Milestones of development are important not just for children, but for parents. Lara describes milestones in her 2-year-old’s development. Parents’ joy in their children influences their children’s development. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.