Chapter 13: Motivation and Emotion Case Study: The Happiness of Nations Section 1: The Psychology of Motivation Section 2: Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger Section 3: Psychological Needs Section 4: Emotions Simulation: Applying What You’ve Learned

Case Study: The Happiness of Nations We often hear statistics about how nations rank against each other in areas such as economy, population, or size. But we rarely hear about how happy a nation’s people are. One psychologist set out to learn which nation had the happiest citizens and what made them that way. Denmark leads the list, and the United States appears in the top 20 percent. The happiest countries shared characteristics such as personal and political liberty, and confidence in the honesty and efficacy of the government. Some governments have worked to increase the happiness levels of their nations. –

What do you think? What characteristics did the happiest countries share? What would it take for gross national happiness to replace gross domestic product as the chief measure of national success?

Section 1 at a Glance The Psychology of Motivation Motivations can be analyzed as needs and drives. Psychologists have developed several different theories of motivation, including instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, humanistic theory, and sociocultural theory.

The Psychology of Motivation Main Idea Psychologists study motivation to explain why people behave the way they do. Reading Focus What does the psychology of motivation deal with? What are the major theories of motivation?

Confronting Fear and Failure What makes rock climbers keep trying when they keep falling?

Motivation Motivation answers why people do the things they do. A motive is a stimulus that moves a person to behave in ways designed to accomplish a specific goal. Need: a condition in which we require something we lack Biological needs: filled to survive; oxygen, food, sleep Psychological needs: not necessarily based on deprivation and can be learned; achievement, self-esteem Needs Needs give rise to drives: forces that motivate an organism to take action Biological need for water gives rise to the thirst drive Biological drives are experienced as psychological Drives –

Identify Supporting Details Reading Check Identify Supporting Details What are the two types of needs? Answer: biological and psychological

Theories of Motivation Instinct Theory Instinct: behavior patterns genetically transmitted from generation to generation Also called “fixed-action patterns” Not all animal behavior is purely instinctive, some is learned. Psychologists once believed all human action was instinctual, but today most do not. Drive-reduction Theory People and animals experience a drive arising for a need as an unpleasant tension. They learn to do whatever will reduce that tension, such as eating to reduce the hunger drive. Homeostasis: tendency to maintain an internal state of equilibrium Drive-reduction theory does not explain all motivation.

Theories of Motivation Humanistic Theory Humanists argue that humans are also motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillment. In fact, they may outweigh our drive to meet more basic needs. Self-actualization: the need to become what one believes he or she is capable of being Maslow believed that striving to become or do something meaningful is as essential to human well-being as food. He created a hierarchy of needs, from basic physiological to self-actualization. Critics argue the hierarchy does not apply to everyone. Sociocultural Theory Even if basic drives such as hunger are inborn, cultural experiences and factors influence the behavior that people use to satisfy those drives.

Reading Check Compare According to humanistic psychology, what is wrong with instinct theory and drive-reduction theory? Answer: They suggest human behavior is mechanical, directed only toward surviving and reducing tension, and do not consider the conscious desire for personal growth and fulfillment.

Section 2 at a Glance Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger Biological needs such as hunger involve both physiological and psychological factors. Obesity has many causes but also many solutions.

Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger Main Idea Biological needs such as hunger involve both physiological and psychological factors. Reading Focus What are the components of the hunger drive? What causes obesity?

Why do people keep eating junk food?

The Hunger Drive Biological needs are based mainly on body tissue needs, such as the needs for food, water, air, temperature regulation, and pain avoidance. They can be complex because they also involve psychological factors. The acts of chewing and swallowing provide certain sensations that help satisfy the hunger drive. The hunger drive is usually fully satisfied when the body digests food. The Role of the Mouth It was once believed that hunger pangs were the cause of hunger. Now researchers know that hunger pangs play a role in hunger but are not the main factor in signaling hunger. The Role of the Stomach –

Psychological Influences The Hypothalamus The level of sugar in the blood and the hypothalamus are key influences on feelings of hunger. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that regulates body temperature and various aspects of psychological motivation and emotion. Different parts of the hypothalamus control the urge to begin eating and to stop eating. Psychological Influences In human beings, psychological as well as biological factors affect feelings of hunger. Learning that certain amounts of food or drink will produce a feeling of well-being and relaxation can cause people to eat and drink when they feel upset.

Identify Cause and Effect Reading Check Identify Cause and Effect What happens when you keep eating until you feel totally full? Answer: You will eat more food than your body needs.

Click on the image to play the Interactive.

Obesity Causes of Obesity More than 6 out of 10 adult Americans are overweight, while 3 out of 10 are obese: weighing more than 30 percent greater than their recommended weight. Obese people suffer more illnesses than non-obese, including heart disease, stroke, diabetes, gall bladder disease, gout, respiratory problems, and certain kinds of cancer. Weight control is often elusive for most obese people. Causes of Obesity It seems to run in families, but is not necessarily inherited. Certain genes may prevent the message of having eaten enough to reach the brain. Genes also determine how many fat cells a person has. Genes determine metabolic rate. Psychological factors such as stress and personal circumstances such as family gathering can increase food intake.

Losing Weight Keeping Weight Off Psychologists and other professionals have worked to devise strategies for weight loss. Not everyone should lose weight. A sound diet is one that is sensible, realistic, and well planned. Eating foods that are low in fat sets a good precedent for a lifetime of healthful eating. Nutritional information is important. Exercising helps burn calories and increase metabolism. Keeping Weight Off Many people who lose weight struggle not to regain weight. Maintaining a new, more healthy weight requires ongoing work. An increase in self-esteem and the adoption of a new, life-long approach to eating and exercising are important factors in keeping weight off.

Identify Supporting Details Reading Check Identify Supporting Details Why do men generally find it easier to lose weight than women? Answer: Men tend to have less fat and more muscle in their bodies, and thus usually burn calories more quickly than women of the same weight.

Section 3 at a Glance Psychological Needs All people seek sensory stimulation. Some people feel driven to high achievement. People seek to balance their beliefs, actions, and thoughts. Humans are motivated to be social.

Psychological Needs Main Idea Reading Focus Psychological motivations include stimulus motives and achievement motivation. Several different theories attempt to explain what drives people. Reading Focus What are stimulus motives? Why doesn’t everyone have achievement motivation? What motivates people to make things fit? How does the desire for affiliation motivate people?

Was it mutiny or a well-deserved rest?

Stimulus Motives Sensory Deprivation We experience psychological needs as well as biological needs. Some psychological needs motivate us to reduce tension or stimulation. Other psychological needs actually lead us to increase the amount of stimulation we experience. Stimulus motives: the desires for stimulation Sensory Deprivation Sensory deprivation: the absence of stimulation Students who were placed in a situation of sensory deprivation became bored and irritable, reported hallucinations, and quit the study early. They reported extreme boredom and disorientation for some time.

Exploration and Manipulation Most people are motivated to explore their immediate surroundings. Once people become sufficiently comfortable with their environment, they seek new stimulation. Do people and animals explore and manipulate their environment because these activities help them meet the needs for food and safety? Or do they explore simply for the sake of new stimulation? Many psychologists believe that exploration and manipulation are reinforcing in and of themselves.

Identify Supporting Details Reading Check Identify Supporting Details How might exploration and manipulation help an animal to survive? Answer: The animal will learn about resources and dangers and learn how to change the environment to increase its chances for survival.

Achievement Motivation Achievement motivation: the drive to get ahead, tackle challenging situations, and meet high personal standards of success People with higher achievement motivation make better grades and make more money than others. Performance goals: specific goal; extrinsic rewards (good grades, good income) Learning goals: knowledge goal; intrinsic rewards (self-satisfaction) Types of Goals The attitude of parents and caregivers plays a crucial role. Parents may encourage a child to find his or her own answer, or may reward good grades and punish bad grades. Development of Achievement Motivation –

Identify Cause and Effect Reading Check Identify Cause and Effect What sorts of rewards usually satisfy performance goals? Answer: extrinsic rewards, such as good grades, a good income, and respect from others

Making Things Fit Cognitive Consistency Many psychological needs are aimed at reducing stimulation or tension, especially in interactions with other people. These types of psychological needs are based on people’s need to maintain a balance between their personal beliefs, actions, and thoughts. Cognitive Consistency Cognitive consistency: thinking and behaving in a way that fits what an individual believes and how others expect that individual to think and behave. Most people prefer that the “pieces” of their lives fit together, and feel better when the important relationships in their lives are stable and orderly.

Cognitive-dissonance Theory Balance Theory Balance theory: people need to organize their perceptions, opinions, and beliefs in a harmonious manner. Maintain cognitive balance by holding consistent views and having friends who hold similar views. When someone we care about disagrees with us, an uncomfortable state of imbalance arises. Cognitive-dissonance Theory Cognitive-dissonance theory: people are motivated to reduce the inconsistency of their thoughts and behaviors. Suggests that people having a basic disagreement may seek to reduce the dissonance by trying to pretend the differences between them are unimportant or even by denying that the differences exist

What situation can create a state of imbalance? Reading Check Draw Conclusions What situation can create a state of imbalance? Answer: issues such as religion, politics, or personal values

Affiliation Affiliation: the desire to join with others and be part of something larger than oneself People make friends, join groups, and participate in activities with others. Affiliation motivation helps keep families, groups, and nations together. Sometimes a strong need to affiliate may be a sign of anxiety. The desire to affiliate with a group can lead people to disregard their own perceptions.

Why doesn’t everyone feel the same amount of desire to affiliate? Reading Check Infer Why doesn’t everyone feel the same amount of desire to affiliate? Answer: possible answer—varies with age, life situation, personality

Section 4 at a Glance Emotions Emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavioral components. Facial expressions of emotion are the same around the world. Psychologists have developed several different theories of emotion.

Emotions Main Idea Reading Focus Emotions are states of feeling that influence thoughts and behaviors. Facial expressions reflect our emotions. Reading Focus What is the nature of emotion? How do facial expressions differ across different cultures? What are the major theories of emotion?

What happens when a person becomes perfectly rational?

The Nature of Emotions Emotions: states of feeling Positive emotions such as happiness and love make life worth living, while negative emotions such as fear and sadness can make life difficult. Some emotions arise in response to a situation. Emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavioral components. Theories try to group emotions into different categories or determine how many emotions there are. –

Happiness James said that the motive behind everything that people do is “how to gain, how to keep, how to recover happiness.” People who are happy think the world is a happier, safer place, make decisions more readily, and report greater satisfaction with their lives. Happier people are more likely to help others. Anger A common response to an insult or attack, it can make a person seem out of control. Most people get angry at an alleged offense, especially those that seem deliberate or thoughtless. Small annoyances such as a loud noise or bad odor can cause anger. Being assertive instead of hostile can diffuse anger.

How many emotions do all psychologists agree on? Reading Check Find the Main Idea How many emotions do all psychologists agree on? Answer: two: anxiety and elation

Facial Expressions People can “read” other people’s faces and tell what emotions they are feeling by their expressions. Cross-cultural evidence suggest that facial expressions are probably inborn. Certain facial expressions seem to suggest the same emotions in all people. Smiling appears to be a universal sign of friendliness and approval, while baring the teeth may be a universal sign of anger. Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions had survival value by communicating motivation.

Identify Supporting Details Reading Check Identify Supporting Details Why do psychologists believe that facial expressions are universal? Answer: People in different cultures identified the same emotions when shown the same set of facial expressions.

Theories of Emotion The Opponent-process Theory Opponent-process theory: emotions often come in pairs, with one emotion being followed by its opposite. Extreme sadness may follow extreme happiness. The Commonsense Approach A person quickly interprets a situation, and the interpretation triggers body sensations that signal a feeling, or emotion. The emotion, in turn, triggers a behavior. Most psychologists agree that thoughts (the appraisal of a situation) come before feelings and behavior. Three important theories of emotion are the James-Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, and the theory of cognitive appraisal.

The James-Lange Theory People’s emotions follow, rather than cause, behavioral reactions. Certain situations trigger reactions, called instinctive bodily response patterns. Suggests people can change their feelings by changing behaviors. The Cannon-Bard Theory Emotions accompany the bodily responses that are aroused by an external stimulus. Situations trigger both behaviors and emotions at the same time. The Theory of Cognitive Appraisal All emotions have similar bodily response patterns. Maintains that the way people label an emotion depends on their cognitive appraisal of the situation.

Evaluation of the Theories The theories of emotion are quite different from each other. It is possible that a behavioral reaction pattern could come before, along with, or after an emotional response. The truth may lie in a combination of theories. In short, people are complex, thinking beings who evaluate information both from their personal situations and from their bodily responses to those situations.

Reading Check Summarize What theory suggests that emotions happen after an instinctive bodily response? Answer: James-Lange theory

Current Research in Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Psychologists have studied what makes us do and feel the way we do. Recent studies look at this question in reference to human evolution. Evolutionary psychology studies how our behaviors might have helped our ancestors survive. Psychological traits that helped humans survive and procreate got passed down to future generations. Fear of the dark, taste in food, and affection for children are examples. Play is so common that it must have some evolutionary advantage. Play helps the young develop both mentally and physically. Among social animals, play helps teach rules and establish hierarchies. Play does not end with childhood. Emotions may help people make the right decisions. –

Thinking Critically How does natural selection work? What are some other psychological traits that might have had evolutionary advantages?

Simulation: Applying What You’ve Learned Identifying Motivations and Emotions What can you learn about motivation and emotion through developing fictional characters? In this simulation, you will work in small groups to develop four different characters. Then you will bring each character to life in a skit performed for the class. 1. Introduction The main character is a student named Mark. Secondary characters are Mark’s parents. The fourth character is a college admissions officer. 2. Defining the Characters and Their Feelings –

Simulation (cont'd.) Divide into three groups, each representing different characters. Each group will brainstorm to understand their characters better. Improvise the listed scenes using different actors each time. 3. Acting Out the Scenarios As a class, discuss the following: What motives can be identified? What needs can be identified? What drives can be identified? How and where do the arguments in the scenario fit into Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs? Identify intrinsic and extrinsic rewards from each scenario. 4. Discussion –