Education in the United States: Educational Governance and Policy

Overview The Structure of the U.S. Education System States politics * Size * K12 Organization * Decentralization * Funding States politics Value Systems in U.S. Education * Challenges and Reforms * No Child Left Behind * Choice * Equity * Efficiency * Choice * Excellency

Size The United States operates one of the largest universal education systems in the world (US Department of State, 2009 p.3). Facts: More than 75 million children and adults are enrolled in U.S. schools and colleges in the 2005-2006 academic year (US Department of State, 2009 p.3); 6.8 million are employed as teachers in grades kindergarten through college (US Department of State, 2009 p.3); 96,000 public and elementary schools (US Department of State, 2009 p.3); 4,200 institutions of higher learning (US Department of State, 2009 p.3); Nation’s total expenditures for education stand at approximately $878 billion a year (US Department of State, 2009 p.4).

K12 Organization Source: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d99/fig1.asp Source: National Center of Education Statistics (2009)

Decentralization The United States does not operate a national education system (US Department of State, 2009, p.8). Schools are a state and local responsibility (US Department of State, 2009, p.8). Local boards of education, most of which are elected, administer the nation’s nearly 15,500 school districts (US Department of State, 2009, p.8). State boards of education, along with a local education superintendent or commissioner * oversee local education districts, * set student and teacher standards, * approve the classroom curriculum, * and often review textbook selections (US Department of State, 2009, p.9)

Funding Public schools receive a bulk of their funding from local property taxes (US Department of State, 2009, p.8). Most states provide substantial aid to schools to supplement local tax revenues (US Department of State, 2009, p.9) 90 percent of the annual expenditures for education at all levels comes from state, local and private sources (US Department of State, 2009, p.9). Federal government provides research and support to ensure access and excellence in education (US Department of State, 2009, p.9).

Choice Public Private Charter Magnet Home Schooling Governed by local school districts and their boards. Policies and regulations tend to be uniform across all schools within a district, but can vary among districts. Public Private Governed by their own self-appointed boards of trustees and raise their own operating incomes without state or local government support. Receive public funding but are freed from school district regulations. They operate via a performance agreement, or charter, that sets forth the mission, program, student population, and methods of evaluation and assessment. Charter Regular public schools that have a special educational theme, mode of instruction, subject emphasis, or other characteristic and are permitted to enroll students from across the entire school district rather than being confined to normal school attendance boundaries. Magnet Source: http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-org-us.html Home Schooling Qualified home school graduates are recognized as school graduates by the states and may be admitted to U.S. higher education institutions. There is an extensive array of services, materials, and resources to assist homeschooling parents and children. Source: US Department of Education, 2009

Challenges & Reforms 1950s : launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik led to an increased emphasis on science and mathematics instruction (US Department of State, 2009, p.34). 1965 : Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (US Department of State, 2009, p.38). 1983: a highly influential report A Nation at Risk asserted declining academic standards. The response ranged from lengthening the school day and year to greater emphasis on core academic subjects (US Department of State, 2009, p.34). 2001: The Reauthorization of ESEA known as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (US Department of State, 2009, p.38 ).

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, also known as the Reauthorization of ESEA Significant shift in federal role and of state and local responsibilities (US Department of State, 2009, p.38). Requires states to set educational standards for achievement at different grade levels and to take steps to improve the performance of those who don’t meet the standards (US Department of State, 2009, p.98). Mandates states for what children should know in reading and mathematics in grades 3-8 on standardized tests (US Department of State, 2009, p.39). Provides for eventual removal of students and funding from failing schools (US Department of State, 2009, p.39) Federal role mean to affect every student and every school in US Purpose of federal role to improve academic achievement Insistence on raising scores of all subgroups retains and sharpens equity focus of 60-70’s Federal government demanding major improvements in teacher and paraprofessional qualifications Larger federal role also means larger role for states and local districts States must expand assessment programs and provide technical assistance to school districts, show progress in eliminating the achievement gap Local districts must assist schools new federal role calls for fed, state, and schools to fulfill ambitious goals; time will tell if federal role will be trimmed back because its promises are difficult to fulfill

States’ politics Understanding of states’ politics of education requires a grasp of distinctive societal backgrounds (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001. p.213). Variety is a key to understanding much about the basic value of individualism in the American education system (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001. p. 211). The fifty states vary along the traditional dimensions of demographic patterns, economic resources and public values (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001. p213.).

Public Values in Education Even though the values of equity, efficiency, choice and excellence are deeply embedded in the United States heritage, they exist in a constant state of tension (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p.6). Too much emphasis on any one hinders expression of each of the three (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p.6). At various time in America’s history one or another of these values has been overemphasized (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p.7).

Value Tension Equity Choice Efficiency Excellence Equity Public Values exist in constant state of tension (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p.6).

How policy changes occur: the macro level Public values are influenced by technology, ecology, economic and demographic demands and constraints at macro and micro levels. Source: Guthrie and Wang, 2007

How policy changes occur: micro level Source: Guthrie and Wang, 2007

Equity Equity means fairness in sharing the resources available for schooling (Sergiovanni et al,2004 p. 7). Equity does not always mean providing identical resources to each school or student. Students with special needs or with disadvantaged opportunities are often given more resources in an attempt to level the learning field for all students (Sergiovanni et al,2004 p. 7). Often equity suffers at the hand of excellence. Some argue that incentives should be provided to motivate schools to strive for excellence. e.g. reward schools with high test scores with increased autonomy/cash bonuses or both (Sergiovanni et al,2004 p. 7). One way to balance concerns for equity and excellence is adopting a value-added approach to accountability (Sergiovanni et al,2004 p. 8).

Efficiency Value of efficiency is measured in economic or control terms (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001, p.218). Economic mode: minimizing costs while maximizing gains. Example: pupil-teacher ratio (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001, p.219). Accountability mode: superiors oversee and control subordinates’ use of power. Example: Publicizing stages of budgetary processes (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001, p.219). Excessive concern for efficiency compromises the choice value, makes the goal of equity difficult by reducing amounts of resources and results in a relative decrease in spending which compromises the value of excellence (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p. 9).

Choice Legislated option for local constituencies to make decisions (Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. 2001, p.218). In recent years though, local control has been slipping away to state and federal levels (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p. 10). Excellence Value of excellence is difficult to define. Advocates of equity define it in terms of an educational program’s ability to respond to the issues they consider important. Unique definitions emerge in the rhetoric of advocates of liberty and efficiency (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p. 10). For most, excellence is considered to have something to do with a school’s ability to achieve it’s objectives in a high quality way (Sergiovanni et al 2004, p. 11).

Bibliography Guthrie & Wang (2007) National Center of Education Statistics (July 18, 2009). The Structure of Education in the United States. Sergiovanni et al (2004) The Role of Value Systems in U.S. Educational Governance and Policy. (p. 1-20) US Department of Education, (July 18, 2009). Organization of U.S. Education US Department of State (July 9, 2009). “Structure of US Education”. In USA Education in Brief. Wirt F. M., Kirst M. W. (2001) The Political Dynamics of American Education. Second Edition, McCuthon Publishing Corporation (p.209-231)