Religion Chapter 15

The Sociological Study of Religion Religion is a social institution composed of a unified system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals—based on some sacred or supernatural realm— that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community. Religion is sometimes thought of as a platform for the expression of spirituality, or the relationship between the individual and something larger than oneself, such as a broader sense of connection with the surrounding world. Spirituality involves inner, subjective feelings and experiences Religion involves external beliefs, rituals and deities Both religion and spirituality involve faith, a confident belief that cannot be proven or disproven but is accepted as true. The sociological investigation of religion reflects disinterested scholarship, meaning that social scientists do not seek to make value judgments about religious beliefs or to determine whether particular religious bodies are “right” or “wrong.”

In studying religion, sociologists distinguish between what they term the experience, beliefs, and rituals of a religion. Religious experience refers to the conviction or sensation that we are connected to “the divine.” This type of communion might be experienced when people pray or meditate. Religious rituals are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as bar mitzvah or confession of sins

In addition to beliefs, religion also is comprised of symbols and rituals. Rituals are regularly repeated and carefully prescribed forms of behavior that symbolize a cherished value or belief. Rituals can range from songs and prayers to offerings and sacrifices. Not all sociologists believe that the sacred canopy accurately describes contemporary religion. Some believe that the religious marketplace is a better metaphor.

Durkheim and the Importance of Religion According to Durkheim, sacred refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural; those things that are set apart as "holy.“ Those things people do not set apart as sacred are referred to as profane―the everyday, secular, or "worldly," aspects of life. Secularization is the diminishing of religious influence on society. It has two components: decline in religious values in everyday life corresponding increase in nonreligious values

Sociological Perspectives on Religion

Functionalist Perspective Functionalists contend that religion serves several functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value, and significance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, like providing answers to spiritual mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and social control.

Functionalist Perspective Durkheimian Functions of religion Religion has three important functions in any society: Providing meaning and purpose to life Promoting social cohesion and a sense of belonging Providing social control and support for the government Manifest functions: religion defines the spiritual world and gives meaning to the divine Latent functions: might include providing a meeting ground for unmarried members

Political leaders still rely on religion to justify their decisions. In the U.S., the separation of church and state reduces religious legitimation of political power. Political leaders still rely on religion to justify their decisions. The informal relationship between religion and the state is referred to as civil religion. Civil religion is the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that make sacred the values of the society and place the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. Civil religion is not tied to any one denomination. It has an identity all its own. Civil religion is evident in celebrations of days like the Fourth of July and Memorial Day, in placing one’s hand on the Bible while swearing to do one’s duty, and the mention of God in the Pledge of Allegiance and on our currency.

Conflict Perspectives on Religion Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. Conflict theorists are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication from the divine.

Karl Marx: According to Marx, the capitalist class uses religious ideology as a tool of domination to mislead the workers about their true interests. Religion causes people to become complacent and put up with suffering in this life because of a promise of reward in the afterlife. Religion thus unites people in “false consciousness.”

By contrast, The Weberian Thesis argued that religion could be a catalyst to produce social change. Protestant ethic: followers of Protestant Reformation emphasized a disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and a rational orientation for life “Spirit of capitalism” has emerged as generalized cultural trait

Because people cannot know whether they will be saved, they look for signs that they are among the elect. As a result, people work hard, save their money, and do not spend it on worldly frivolity; instead, they reinvest it in their land, equipment, and labor. As people worked ever harder to prove their religious piety, structural conditions became right for the industrial revolution, free markets, and the commercialization of the economy, which worked hand‑in‑hand with their religious teachings. Wealth is an unintended consequence of religious piety. From a conflict perspective, religion tends to promote conflict between groups and societies: it may be between religious groups, within a group, or between a religious group and society.

Feminist Perspective Theorists have stressed fundamental role women play in religious socialization Women generally take subordinate role in religious governance Women play vital role as volunteers, staff, and educators In U.S., women more likely than men to be affiliated with religion

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives Religion as a reference group For many people, religion serves as a reference group to help them define themselves. Religious symbols, for example, have a meaning to large bodies of people (e.g., the Star of David for Jews; the crescent moon and star for Muslims; and the cross for Christians). Religion and social meaning Religion provides social meaning for individuals as they learn about beliefs, rituals, and religious ideas from others. This process helps contribute to identity, which in turn helps people adjust to their surroundings. Social meaning in religion emerges through socialization and from interaction with others in a religious setting.

World Religions

Buddhism Current Followers: 463 million Founder/Date: Siddhartha Gautama/500-600 BCE Beliefs: Through meditation and adherence to the Eightfold Path (correct thought and behavior), people can free themselves from desire and suffering, escape the cycle of eternal rebirth, and achieve nirvana (enlightenment).

Christianity Current Followers: 2.2 billion Founder/Date: Jesus/first century CE Beliefs: Jesus is the Son of God. Through good moral and religious behavior (and/or God’s grace), people achieve eternal life with God.

Hinduism Current Followers: 935 million Founder/Date: No specific founder/ 1500 BCE Beliefs: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer) are divine. Union with ultimate reality and escape from eternal reincarnation are achieved through yoga, adherence to scripture, and devotion.

Islam Current Followers: 1.5 billion Founder/Date: Muhammad/600 CE Beliefs: Muhammad received the Qur’an (scriptures) from God. On Judgment Day, believers who have submitted to God’s will, as revealed in the Qur’an, will go to an eternal Garden of Eden.

Judaism Current Followers: 15 million Founder/Date: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob/2000 BCE Beliefs: God’s nature and will are revealed in the Torah (Hebrew scripture) and in His intervention in history. God has established a covenant with the people of Israel, who are called to a life of holiness, justice, mercy, and fidelity to God’s law.

Types of Religious Organization

Ecclesiae An ecclesia is a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society. People are members of an ecclesia based on being born into the society, not by decision/choice. There is no true ecclesia in the contemporary world, but there are some religions (Anglican church in England, Roman Catholic church in Italy or Spain, Islamic mosques in Iran) that come close.

Denomination Denomination: large, organized religion not officially linked with state or government. Denominations have a trained ministry. More tolerant of difference and less likely than churches to expel or excommunicate members. This form of organization is most likely to thrive in societies characterized by religious pluralism.

Sects A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith. Fundamentally at odds with society; do not seek to become established national religions.

New Religious Movement A New religious movement (NRM) or cult, is a small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith Similar to sects Tend to be small Viewed as less respectable than more established faiths

Social Policy and Religion: Religion in the Schools Controversy over teaching of theories about the origin of humans and the universe Mainstream scientific thinking: humans evolved over billions of years; universe came into existence 15 billion years ago Creationism: holding to biblical account of the creation of humans and the universe some 10,000 years ago

Social Policy and Religion: Religion in the Schools Looking at the Issue Issue goes to heart of First Amendment provisions regarding religious freedom Applying Sociology- Prayer in Schools Supporters of school prayer: Supreme Court has driven too big a wedge between church and state Prayer can provide socialization and spiritual guidance Opponents of school prayer: Through school prayer, religious majority may impose specific viewpoints onto religious minorities