Overview Mid-18th c. renewal of European warfare Outcomes Austria vs. Prussia over dominance of central Europe Great Britain vs. France for commercial & colonial supremacy Outcomes Prussia emerges as great power Great Britain gains a world empire Peace results in restructuring of taxation & finance, leading in turn to: American Revolution Continental enlightened absolutism Continuing French financial crisis Reform of Spanish South American empire

European Overseas Empires Four phases of European contact with the New World Discovery, exploration, conquest, settlement—to end of 17th c. Mercantile empires & great power trade rivalries; slavery; colonial independence—to 1820s 19th-c. empires in Africa & Asia Decolonization, mid- to late 20th c. Fundamental element of first two periods? Slavery European saw others as inferior Source of European world domination Technology (ships & guns)

Mercantile Empires Boundaries set by Treaty of Utrecht 1713 Mercantile empires > headed by navies and merchant shipping Spain: South America except for Brazil; Florida, Mexico, California & N. American Southwest; Central America; Caribbean possessions Britain: N. Atlantic seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland; Caribbean possessions; trading posts on Indian subcontinent France: St. Lawrence, Ohio, & Mississippi river valleys; Caribbean possessions; trading posts in India & West Africa Netherlands: Surinam (S. America); Cape Colony (S. Africa); trading posts in West Africa, Sri Lanka, & India; also controlled trade with Java in SE Pacific Rivalries will form

Mercantilist Goals Underlying economic theory of 18th-c. empires Main goal > regulate trade & commerce in the hope of increasing national wealth International trade as zero-sum game; whoever gets the most gold wins Bullion > measure of a country’s wealth Nation can only grow at expense of another Colonies meant to trade exclusively with home country > provide for industry back home Hard to enforce because it was more profitable to trade with other colonies Governments could not control their subject’s actions “Golden Age of Smuggling”

French-British Rivalry North America territory, fishing rights, fur trade, & alliances with Native Americans West Indies > heart of rivalry produced important products? sugar > probably the most sought after India traded through charter companies these companies taking over Indian govt. trying to checkmate the other Dutch dominated Indonesia further east

The Spanish Colonial System Colonies > supply Spain with precious metals Colonial Government The technical link between New World and Spain was the crown of Castile Top-down administration, almost no self-government Viceroys > chief executives of the New World

Trade Regulation Casa de Contración located in Seville regulated all trade with New World This is where the Spain’s trade monopoly was located Flota system Fleet of commercial ships carried merchandise from Spain to the New World Came back with bullion Trade outside it was illegal Spanish colonies could not trade with each other

Colonial Reform Bourbons replace Habsburgs in Spain Reestablish monopoly through French administrative skills Spain sent out patrol vessels to deal with smugglers Spain at the military mercy of others > they have to reform Spanish cities open to trade not just Seville Intendants created for tax collections Bourbon reforms were effective > trade increased Conflict among peninsulares and creoles Leads to wars of independence in the 1800s

African Presence in Americas Had always existed in some form in parts of Europe, but from 16th c., became fundamental to the British & Spanish imperial economies (plantation economy) Driven by labor shortage Supplied by internal African warfare Slave markets dominant on West African coast Two arenas West Indies & South America (Brazil) > earliest > 16th Cent. North America Slave trade grew the largest in 18th Cent. because of Low fertility rate and high mortality rate of established slaves Difficult to create stable self-reproducing population

Slavery & the Transatlantic Economy Different nations dominated at different time periods 16th Cent. > Portugal & Spain 17th Cent. > Netherlands & England 18th Cent. > England Transatlantic Slave Trade > triangular Europeans traded for slaves Slaves were usually Prisoners of war Captives > slave raids

The Experience of Slavery Estimated 9 million Africans or more brought to Americas over 4 centuries Largest forced migration in human history Journey > Atlantic Passage (Middle Passage) > devastating Seasoning? Maintenance of ethnic bonds in the New World African language & religion Allowed them to communicate > sometimes led to revolts > organization Generally accepted that all the slaves in plantation societies led difficult lives with little variation Majority of slaves converted to Christianity One of the factors that contributed to slavery was racist ideology

Mid-Eighteenth-Century Wars Remember Warfare furthered national interests Idea of Mercantilism War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739) English-Spanish competition in West Indies Spanish patrolled and boarded English ships Spanish > cut the ear off of captain > Robert Jenkins British declared war on Spain in 1739 Minor war was opening encounter to European warfare up to 1815 vs.

War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) Frederick II of Prussia invades Silesia & takes it Open season for Austrian Hapsburg lands France & Spain back Prussia, England backs Austria European powers do not want to see an upset in the balance of power Maria Theresa maintains Hapsburg empire as a major political power Ended with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 Prussia retained Silesia, Spain renewed Treaty of Utrecht with Britain so they could import slaves from Spanish colonies

The “Diplomatic Revolution” of 1756 France and Britain clash in New England Ohio River Valley See a constant shift in alliances in Europe in every chapter we covered so far Great Britain joined forces with Germany, Convention of Westminster Britain and Prussia ally > no foreign troops in Germany Why > George III > elector of Hanover in Germany > afraid of French invasion France and Austria agreed to defensive alliance France mad a Prussia for allying with Britain Alliances just completely changed from before (War of Austrian Succession) Westminster

Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) Frederick II (Prussia) invades Saxony France and Austria ally to destroy Prussia Others join too Two factors save Prussia Britain’s financial aid Russia makes peace (Peter III) Britain wins impressive victories in every theater of the war William Pitt major factor in war British win lands east of Mississippi British win major islands in the West Indies that French held Help from colonies France could not adequately supply its troops in N. America British win major victories in India Treaty of Paris 1763 Reflects somewhat less of victory than Britain actually won on the battlefield Result > France no longer great colonial power > Great Britain world power > Prussia obtains Silesia from Austria > European powers have to seek to pay war debt > Spanish empire still intact

Europe & the American Revolution Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue Caused by problems of revenue collection common to all powers after Seven Years’ War British tried to tax colonies to pay for war Felt colonies needed to pay for their protection Colonies responded that they wouldn’t be taxed without representation Measures taken by Britain Sugar Act Stamp Act Resistance > Stamp Act Congress > Sons of Liberty Declaratory Act

The Crisis and Independence Colonies resisted several measures designed to raise money, including the Townshend, Tea, Intolerable, and Quebec Acts Reactions > Boston Massacre, Boston Tea Party, and formation of First and Second Continental Congress Thomas Paine’s Common Sense aroused revolutionary sentiments Continental Congress declares Declaration of Independence

American Political Ideas Derived from 17th century Revolution of 1688 in England impacts revolution Writings of John Locke

Events in Great Britain John Wilkes affair Arrested after criticizing treaty with France in print Elected several times to Parliament but king would not sit him Influence of American ideas & events in Britain Appeal to popular opinion Broadly rejected monarchy, social hierarchies Yorkshire movement demanded changes in parliamentary elections

Broader Impact of American Revolution Demonstrated to Europe possibility of government without kings Idea of preserving traditional liberties Reject social status