What is motivation? A need or desire that serves to energize behavior and to direct it toward a goal

Motivational Theories Biological forces controlled motivation - Instincts (based on Darwin)

Drive Reduction Theory Homeostasis Hunger - Physiological need creates psychological state Drive (hunger) is reduced –the need is satisfied

Arousal Theory External Incentives The goal is to increase arousal - Too little stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal Arousal Theory

Abraham Maslow Humanistic Theory

Self-Actualize Esteem Needs Belongingness Needs Safety/Security Needs Physiological Needs

Abraham Maslow Additional thoughts by Exceptions: Martyrs Did not have to satisfy a need 100% For the average American: 85% of physiological needs are met, 70% of safety needs, 50% of belongingness and love needs, 40% of self-esteem needs, and 10% of self-actualization needs are satisfied. Means to satisfy a need varies across cultures Behavior is a result of multiple motivations Addition of cognitive needs (can be inhibited by schools and/or parents)

Physiology of Hunger Stomach Contractions *Increase in stomach contractions = increase in the feelings of hunger. Glucose - Increases in the hormone insulin, decreases glucose. *Blood Glucose *Hunger *Also: Stress increases cravings for carbs that increase serotonin. Hypothalamus (lateral = side & ventromedial = lower middle) - This is where stomach pangs and glucose levels are sent. Lateral stimulation sends hunger messages, ventromedial stimulation depresses hunger. Set Point - weight thermostat

Motivation-Hunger WASHBURN STUDY: Stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time in minutes Subject swallows balloon, which measures stomach contraction Subject presses key each time when hungry Stomach contractions Hunger pangs Remove stomach, remove hunger? NO!

Motivation-Hunger Glucose the form of sugar that circulates in the blood provides the major source of energy for body tissues when its level is low, we feel hunger

Motivation-Hunger Set Point Metabolic Rate the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight set point can be changed with slow changes in body weight Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy expenditure

Motivation-Hunger The hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions Lateral: brings on hunger Ventromedial: Depresses hunger

External eater? Are you an The presence of food can increase insulin which decreases glucose which is monitored by the hypothalamus to send a hunger response. Do you eat because your hypothalamus told you to or because you can’t resist the presence of chocolate?

Universal Preferences; sweet and salty

Eating Disorders More evident in weight conscious cultures. Anorexia Nervosa when a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve usually an adolescent female Bulimia Nervosa disorder characterized by private “binge-purge” episodes of overeating, usually of highly caloric foods, followed by vomiting or laxative use

Anorexia Nervosa when a person is less than 85% of their normal body weight 95% of sufferers are female most are between the ages of 18-30 30% of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die families are often competitive, high-achieving and protective

Bulimia Commonly depressed or anxious Easy to hide because weight fluctuations are within normal range Families of bulimia patients have higher rates of alcoholism, obesity, and depression

Body Image Survey 89% of women want to lose weight; 22% of men say they want to gain weight. Some women are choosing not to have children because of the negative body image. Sexual abuse contributes to body dissatisfaction. Teasing during childhood or adolescence can have a lasting negative impact for decades.

Positive attitudes don’t mean a healthy lifestyle. Extreme Erotophobia Extreme Erotophilia Dislike talking about sex Masturbate less Engage in less-frequent breast cancer self-examinations Fewer gynecological check-ups Less likely to take steps for effective contraception Sex not discussed in their families Grades in Human Sexuality courses are lower than Erotophilias Enjoy pornographic movies Find group sex entertaining Long-term sexual relationships with more than one partner are acceptable Approve of pre-marital sex Love doesn’t have to link with sex More premarital sex partners than erotophobes Positive Attitudes? Negative Attitudes? Sexual Education? Positive attitudes don’t mean a healthy lifestyle. What attitudes are healthy? (psychologically, socially, physically, morally)

Assessing Sexual Practices: Interviews & Surveys Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction Sexual Literacy: Did you know…? 76% of respondents did not know average age of first intercourse, which is 18. 50% did not know that oil-based lubricants should not be used with condoms or diaphragms (some cause holes within 60 seconds). 49% did know a woman can get pregnant during her menstrual period. 50% thought a person could get AIDS by having rectal intercourse, even if neither partner is infected with the virus.

Human sexual response cycle Excitement - genitals engorged with blood Plateau - breathing, pulse, blood pressure increase Orgasm - muscle contractions, further increases in breathing Without orgasm Males Females Resolution phase

Hormones and Psychological Effects on Sexual Motivation Estrogen-sexual desire in females only slightly increases at ovulation. Sexual desire in females also responsive to testosterone levels Males testosterone levels can increase just being with a female. Pubertal surge in sex hormones. Later in life, hormones drop off and intercourse and fantasies decline. Sex is not a need. Externals: Women aroused by explicit pictures as men. Pleasing or Disturbing? Imagined Stimuli-Dreams bring about sexual orgasm (more commen in men-”wet dreams.” Memories of past sexual experiences.

Sexual Disorders Premature ejaculation Impotence Orgasmic disorder

Males Females Read romance over pornography Accepting of casual sex Initiate sex Masturbate more often View pornography more often Think about sex more often One-night stands more common. Will even be willing to go to bed with a stranger Read romance over pornography Need more time before 1st sexual encounter Study: No woman agreed to have sex with a stranger

Males: Higher on permissiveness and instrumentality scales. Females: Oriented to love/sexuality patterns that is practical but idealistic with high, intense emotions.

Homosexuality: Nature or Nurture? Not a result of: Recognize around 20 years old Ostracized, jokes, doubt, guilt. 3-4% of population Exposure to hormones (typically exp. by female fetuses) during pregnancy - 2nd-5th month Homosexuality: Nature or Nurture? Not a result of: parenting hatred of other gender hormones (currently in blood) molestation Genetics: Yes, according to Twin Studies Biological differences in the hypothalamus

Sex and human values Should sex-education be value-free? Should some sexual acts be labeled as perversions? Does formal sex education lead to an increase in premarital sex? Should 3rd graders read “Johnny and his 2 mothers?”

Achievement Motivation: A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control, and for rapidly attaining a high standard. Who do you know that has high achievement motivation? IQ = Achievement ? NO If not, where does achievement motivation come from?

Sources of Achievement Motivation From parents who stress independence From parents who praise/reward for success Children learn that achievement = positive emotions & competence Birth Order (1st borns = higher achievers, Later borns = more freewheeling & creative)

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective. A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment. Why are you in AP Psych? Interesting Curiosity Competent Why are you in AP Psych? Parents Need the credit Save money in college

A+ MOTIVATING OTHERS Accomplishment Which motive is highest in the U.S.? I did it! Present a Challenge Lesson Plan: by AP Psych Students Goal: To pass the AP Psych Exam How will you do it? Students Decide Goal Student of the Week Recognition Affiliation

Task Leadership Social Leadership Standards Goals Organization Focused Gives Good Orders Mediate Conflict Team Spirit Delegate Authority Participation of Team Morale Builder Vision Charisma Communication

McGregor’s Theory X & Y Theory Y Theory X Managers are more optimistic about workers’ capabilities Managers believe people enjoy work, willingly accept responsibility, exercise self-control, have the capacity to innovate, and work is as natural as play Theory X Managers are pessimistic about workers’ capabilities Managers believe people dislike work, seek to avoid responsibility, and are not ambitious Employees must be closely supervised