Chapter XII Mongol Eurasia and its aftermath 1200-1500

Chapter 12 Thesis Analyze continuities and changes in trade networks between Europe and Asia from circa 300 C.E. to 1450

Chapter 12 Quote “Despite his image as a bloody tyrant, Genghis was also forward thinking. His empire had the first international postal system, invented the concept of diplomatic immunity, and even allowed women in its councils. But more importantly, the Mongols were also unprecedented in their religious tolerance.” James Rollins, The Eye of God

Chapter Objectives: Account for the magnitude and speed of the Mongol conquests. Describe the benefits that resulted from the integration of Eurasia in the Mongol Empire. Compare and contrast the effects of Mongol rule on Russia and the lands of Islam with the effects on East Asia. Identify points of continuity and discontinuity in the transition from Mongol to Ming rule of China.

Nomadism in Central & Inner Asia

- Nomadic groups depended on scarce water and pasture resources - Mongol groups were strongly hierarchical headed by a single leader or khan - Powerful Mongol groups demanded and received tribute in goods and in slaves from those less powerful. Some groups were able to live almost entirely on tribute.

- Mongols formed complex federations often tied together by marriage alliances - Women often ran the community between the death of rulers - Seasonal movements brought them into contact with many religions; they viewed all religions as subservient to their Sky God and employed shamans

Mongol Conquests 1215-1283

The Steppes

Temujin - Genghis Khan (supreme leader or Great Khan) Conquers North China (Jin) and headed west to the Caspian Sea Son/grandsons extend empire, largest world has ever seen

Grandson Khubilai not accepted as Great Khan, but established Yuan Empire in China Reasons for dominance: Superior horsemanship, better bows, technique of volley of arrows with deadly cavalry charge Learned new techniques, new military technology, incorporated non-Mongol soldiers into their armies Reputation for slaughtering all who would not surrender Ability to take advantage of rivalries among enemies

Overland Trade and the Plague Mongol conquests opened overland trade routes and brought about an unprecedented commercial integration of Eurasia. Growth of long-distance trade under the Mongols led to significant transfer of military and scientific knowledge among Europe, the Middle East, China, Iran, and Japan Diseases including the Bubonic Plague also spread over the trade routes of the Mongol Empire, eventually making it to the Mediterranean world

The Mongols and Islam 1260-1500

Mongol Rivalry Il-Khan Mongol Empire (Persia) vs Khanate of the Golden Horde (Russia) Il-Khan initially Buddhist/shamanism Golden Horde under Batu adopted Islam (mostly Turkic peoples) European leaders attempt to make alliance with non-Muslim Il-Khan Ghazan converts to Islam in 1295, easing tensions between the two

Islam and the State

Tax farming system was created to raise revenue Over-taxation led to poverty & bankrupt farmers Government take over of land & use of paper money led to prolonged depression Il-khan fragmented as Mongols fought each other Golden Horde dismembered the Il-Khan Empire Timur (Tamerlane) builds the Jagadai Khanate in central & western Eurasia as the Il-Khan and Golden Horde Empire declines Timur’s descendants, the Timurids, ruled the Middle East for several generations

Culture and Science in Islamic Eurasia

Literature: Historian Juvaini wrote 1st comprehensive account of the rise of the Mongols under Genghis Khan Rashid al-Din, a Jew converted to Islam who served as adviser to the Il-Khan ruler, was a good example of the cosmopolitan Mongol world Astronomical innovations: epicycles to explain the movement of the moon around the earth Mathematics: Adapted the Indian numerical system, decimals for fractions, & more accurate pi Advances in science, astronomy, & mathematics passed on to Europe, speeding development there

Russia and Rule from Afar After defeating Kievan Rus, Golden Horde made their capital at the mouth of the Volga, the end of the overland caravan route from Central Asia Mongols ruled Russia “from afar,” leaving the Orthodox Church in place and using Russian princes as their agents. The main goal of Golden Horde (& other Mongols) was to extract as much tax as possible from their subjects Prince Alexander Nevskii of Novgorod assisted Mongols in taking Russia, Moscow became the new center for the Russians Russian government did not change much under Mongol rule. Ivan III ended Mongol rule in 1480 and adopted the title of Tsar (Czar)

New States in Eastern Europe & Anatolia Mongol armies attacking Europe included Turks, Chinese, Iranians, & Europeans, led by Mongol generals After Mongol withdrawal, Europeans tried a variety of diplomatic & trade offers to the Mongols Contact between Europeans & Mongols increased through the 13th century, brought knowledge of geography, natural resources, commerce, science, technology & mathematics Mongol invasions & Bubonic Plague caused Europeans to question their accepted customs & religious beliefs The Ottomans, established in eastern Anatolia in the 1300s kept in check by the Timurids, expanded eastward in the 1400’s & conquered Constantinople in 1453

The Yuan Empire, 1279–1368 Khubilai Khan understood & practiced Chinese traditions of government. He constructed a Chinese-style capital at Beijing Tax farming led to over-taxed & brutalized peasants The Mongols unified the Tangut, Jin, & Southern Song Under the Yuan hierarchical system, Confucians had a weak role, while the status of merchants & doctors was elevated. Under Mongol rule, China’s cities & ports prospered, trade recovered, & merchants flourished. Mercantile economy led Chinese gentry elite to move to the cities Rural areas: cotton growing, spinning, & weaving introduced China’s population declined by as much as 40%, northern China had greatest loss of population; Yangzi Valley saw increase

Mongol domination in China, 1271-1368 Fall of the Yuan Empire In 1368, Chinese leader Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols & established the Ming Empire Mongols continued control in Mongolia, Turkestan, & Central Asia, enabling disruption of the overland Eurasian trade & threaten the Ming dynasty Ming Empire also threatened on its NE border by the Jurchens of Manchuria Jurchens, influenced by Mongolian culture, posed a significant threat to the Ming by the late 1400s.

The Early Ming Empire, 1368-1500 Ming China on a Mongol Foundation Former monk/soldier/bandit, Zhu Yuanzhang established Empire Rejected Mongol culture, closed trade with Central Asia & Middle East, reasserted primacy of Confucian ideology Continued institutions & practices introduced by Yuan Dynasty: Provincial structure maintained close control over local affairs Hereditary professional categories Mongol calendar Beijing as capital Between 1405 & 1433 - expeditions to S.E. Asia & Indian Ocean under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He Reestablished trade links with Middle East & brought S.E. Asia under Chinese control, or at least its influence

Ming China on a Mongol Foundation Zheng He’s retraced routes largely known to China Voyages added ~ fifty countries to China’s list of tributaries No significant increase in long-distance trade & the voyages were, overall, not profitable The need to use limited resources for other projects, including coastal defense against Japanese pirates and defense of the northern borders against the Mongols ended the trips The end of Zheng He voyages not the end of Chinese seafaring: but the end of the state’s organization & funding large-scale expeditions

Ming Technology and Population The Ming saw less technological innovation than the Song; in the area of metallurgy, China lost knowledge making high-quality bronze & steel Reasons for slowdown in technological innovation included: High cost of metals & wood Revival of civil service exams, rewarding scholarship & administration Labor glut Lack of pressure from technologically sophisticated enemies Fear of technology transfer Korea and Japan moved ahead of China in technological innovation. Korea excelled in firearms, shipbuilding, meteorology, & calendar making, while Japan surpassed China in mining, metallurgy, & novel household goods

The Ming Achievements Ming was period of great wealth, consumerism, & cultural brilliance One aspect of Ming popular culture was the development of vernacular novels like Water Margin & Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Ming also known for its porcelain making and for other goods, including furniture, lacquered screens, & silk

Centralization and Militarism in East Asia, 1200-1500 Korea from the Mongols to the Yi, 1231–1500 Korea resisted Mongol invasions but gave up in 1258 when the king surrendered & joined his family to Mongols by marriage Falling under the influence of the Mongols, Korea profited from exchange with Yuan technologies: cotton, gunpowder, astronomy, calendar making, & celestial clocks Koryo collapsed after fall of the Yuan, replaced by Yi dynasty. Like the Ming, Yi reestablished local identity & restored the status of Confucian scholarship but kept Mongol administrative practices & institutions Technological innovations of the Yi period include the use of moveable type in copper frames, meteorological science, local calendar, use of fertilizer, & engineering of reservoirs. Growing cash crops, particularly cotton, became common during the Yi period Koreans were innovators in military technology: Patrol ships with cannons, gunpowder arrow-launchers, & armored ships

Political Transformation in Japan, 1274–1500 1st unsuccessful Mongol invasion in 1274 made Kamakura Shogunate develop greater sense of unity, Shogun took steps to centralize planning & preparation for the expected second assault 2nd Mongol invasion (1281) defeated by Japanese defensive preparations & a typhoon. Kamakura continued to prepare for further invasions: warrior elite consolidated their position in Japanese society, trade & communication within Japan increased, but Kamakura’s resources strained by expense of preparations Kamakura destroyed in civil war, Ashikaga shogunate established in 1338 Ashikaga characterized by a relatively weak shogun state and strong provincial lords who sponsored development of markets, religious institutions, schools, & increased agricultural production The delicate artistry and the simple elegance of architecture and gardens were influenced by the popularity of Zen Buddhism, which emphasizes meditation over ritual After the Onin War of 1477, caused by conflict over succession upon Yoshimasa’s retirement, the shogunate exercised no power & provinces were controlled by independent regional lords who fought with each other. Regional lords carried out trade with continental Asia

The Emergence of Vietnam, 1200–1500 Vietnam divided between two states: Chinese-influenced Annam in the north & Indian-influenced Champa in the south Mongols extracted tribute from both states, but with the fall of the Yuan Empire, they began to fight with each other The Ming ruled Annam through a puppet government for almost thirty years in the early 15th century until the Annamese threw off Ming control in 1428 By 1500, Annam had completely conquered Champa and established a Chinese-style government over all of Vietnam

Conclusion Trade between China and Europe received active Mongol stimulation through the protection of routes & encouragement of industrial production Mongols ruled with unprecedented openness, employed talented people irrespective of their linguistic, ethnic, or religious affiliations, generating an exchange of ideas, techniques, & products across the breadth of Eurasia Where Mongol military activity reached its limit of expansion, it stimulated local aspirations for independence In China, Korea, Annam, and Japan the threat of Mongol attack and domination encouraged centralization of government, improvement of military techniques, and renewed stress on local cultural identity