International & Transracial Adoption H607: Ethnicity, Context, and Family Dynamics

Implications of decreasing fertility Increased pressure and investment on children “Greying” of populations, decreasing workforce Potential(?) for curbing of overpopulation on global resource Results in decreased population Developed countries still use more resources

Summary: Family is a dynamic system Culture and context shape definitions roles of families, the trajectory of family formation Families and family formation are changing globally Challenges are notions and conceptualizations of family Changing Ideas about children, childhood, & whether to have children Differential population growth The parts of the global population that are growing the fastest are not the cultures that customarily are the most politically powerful

The plan… Demographics—who’s being adopted from where Perspectives—is it a problem or a benefit History of Transracial/International Adoption The laws/policies & their implications

Why Adopt? Terms of Adoption Fertility problems Social Justice/Humanitarian/cultural Ideologies about population growth Terms of Adoption Openness Transracial/international Infant/Older Child

Who is adopted? 2-4% of all children are adopted A slight majority are kinship adoptions 1950s most adopted children were White, Euro-American infants 1960s increase in transracial and international adoptions White families adopting minority children Extremely rare for white children to be adopted by ethnic minority families. Now, a significant increase in international adoptions

Who is adopted internationally? Substantial increase in numbers 7000 per year in 1990s to 20,000 per year from 2002-2006 From where? 40% from Asian countries 23% from eastern European Countries 22% from Central/South America

Path of Adoption in US 1851, first adoption law passed (in MA) By 1929, all states had statutes pertaining to adoption Early 1900s, rise of modern adoption agencies

Benefits > Costs? Costs? Is adoption a risk factor? Benefits? Overrepresented in outpatient and inpatient mental health clinics Adoptive families may be more willing to refer Greater threat to the integrity of family Increased risk for academic problems learning disabilities Benefits? Adopted into higher SES families Move to homes with increased stability, nurturance Increased likelihood of being wanted Why is transracial (esp.) and international adoption so controversial?

Brief History of Transracial/International Adoption Native American history Indian Adoption Project 1958-1967 From 1950s-1970s 25-35% of all American Indian children removed from their families. “an enlightened adoption practice made possible by greater racial tolerance” (as described) Transracial adoption history Illegal in most states until the 1950s Child Welfare League of America (1958) same race adoption adjust more easily African American History Informal-kin adoptions are most prevalent; most at risk for non adoption 1972 National Association of Black Social Workers statement International Adoption History War, change in political regimes, changes in family planning The Convergence—increased controversy/increased prevalence Decrease in available healthy Euro-American infants Civil rights and greater tolerance Vietnam/Korean wars

Laws Governing Transracial Adoption Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 (Adoption of Native Americans) First federal law governing adoption Strictly limits adoption of Native American children Sees children as a collective resource for the cultural survival of the tribal culture Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994 (US adoption from Foster Care—non Native Americans) Prohibits delay of placement due to race/ethnicity Adoption and Safe Families Act (1997). Adoption from Foster care Reduces time to permanence Increases speed in terminating parental rights

Assumptions that led to MEPA Minority children are at risk for NOT being adopted because Whites are not “allowed” to adopt There is an insufficient number of minority families able to or interested in adopting African American children through traditional agencies Minority children will benefit by prohibiting race-matching.

Laws governing International Adoption Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) Approved by United Nations (not ratified by US) Provide children a “right to identity” The Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Cooperation in Respect of International Adoption (1993) Requires parental cultural training Intercountry Adoption Act of 2000 Attention to how parent will meet the cultural needs of internationally adopted children

Result of Current Laws… International and Domestic Native American adoptions must include plan for cultural competence African American and Latino-American children are unprotected culturally and ethnically. All other transracial/international adoptive parents must demonstrate cultural competence.

Promoting Adjustment Communicating with Child Discussing adoption—shame vs. celebration Supporting curiosity about birth family Understanding child’s adoption related loss Supporting Identity Related Activities Supporting decision to search for birth family Flexibility and recognition of identity processes

Conclusions Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute (2008) “Finding families for African American Children: The role of race and law in adoption from foster care” Transracial adoption itself does not produce psychological or social problems for children Transracially adopted children and their families face a range of challenges and the manner in which parents handle them facilitates or hinders children’s development What should families’ responsibility be for maintaining a child’s biological culture?

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