Forestry, Rangelands, Wilderness, and National Parks Lesson 2

Human Activities Affecting Land and Environment Extensive logging – mudslides Deforestation – climate change Paving – water runoff, “heat islands” Overuse of farmland – soil degradation, water pollution

Tragedy of the Commons Land viewed as a common resource Garrett Hardin a. Tragedy of the Commons - shared, limited resource becomes depleted due to people acting on self-interest for short-term gain More common when there’s no land use agreement or regulation * As populations increased, common lands tend to become degraded through overgrazing, overharvesting and deforestation

Result of negative externality - can lead to serious environmental problems - no one be held legally or financially responsible Solution - private ownership - regulation Externality – cost or benefit of a good or service that is not included in the purchase price of that good or service Regulation – land can be managed effectively at a community level http://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/examples-externalities-market-7577.html

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MYP) a. maximum amount that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource b. keeps the resource population at ~1/2 carrying capacity of environment c. permits an indefinite use without depletion of resource Varies case by case depending on carrying capacity of population as well as growth rate Example: deering hunting not regulated compared to being prohibited - intermediate hunting is ideal because it leaves enough deer to reproduce at a rate that willl maintain the population but not too many to where they have to compete for food MSY – intermediate harvest

Role of Rural Lands Ecosystem services Recreational/spiritual uses Wildlife habitat, flood/erosion control, ground water recharge Breaks down pollutants & recycles waste Provide habitat for organism Recreational/spiritual uses Hiking, boating, sport hunting, fishing Used as bench marks for scientists to determine the impact of human activity 6

FORESTS Occupy less than 1/3 of Earth’s surface Supply: Fuel, timber, paper products, nuts, mushrooms, fruits, medicines Provide many ecosystem services Influence local climate - Transpiration Regulating global biogeochemical cycles Act as “sinks” for CO2 Hold soil in place reducing erosion/mudslides Watersheds: Absorb, hold and slowly release water Controls flooding & droughts Animal habitat 7

Most “managed” forests are monocultures where trees are planted in rows and are of one variety All trees are the same age & size More prone to insects and diseases Insecticides & fungicides are used Monocultures can’t support large food webs FOREST MANAGMENT 8

Sustainable Forestry loggers farmers Seeks to: COOPERATION is crucial! Conserve forests for long-term commercial timber harvest Sustain biodiversity by… Provide improved habitat for many species Decrease soil erosion Preserve watersheds COOPERATION is crucial! environmentalists government officials loggers farmers 9

Sustainable Logging Practices: Unlogged areas are saved as sanctuaries Wildlife corridors are created (zones that connect isolated unlogged areas) Provide escape routes so animals can interbreed (help reduce extinction) Large animals can maintain large territories. 10

Harvesting Trees Harvesting Methods 5 Countries harvest the most trees US, Canada, Russia, China, Brazil What happens to harvested trees? 55% are burned Fuel wood or made into charcoal (partially burn w/o O2) Very important for developing nations 45% used for paper/wood products in highly developed nations Harvesting Methods Selective cutting Shelter wood cutting Seed tree cutting Clearcutting 11

1. Selective Cutting Mature trees are cut individually or in small clusters while the rest of the forest remains intact. Remaining trees fill in with saplings Animals don’t lose habitat 12

2. Shelterwood Cutting Some mature trees are harvested, leaving some to provide protection/shade for young trees and seedlings. The remaining mature trees are harvested once regeneration is well established. Little soil erosion 13

3. Seed Tree Cutting Almost all trees are harvested from an area A few desirable trees are left to provide seeds for the regeneration of the forest. 14

4. Clearcutting Removal of all trees from an area Area is allowed to reseed and regenerate naturally or is planted Timber companies prefer because it is cost effective. Destroys habitat & causes fragmentation Massive soil erosion issues 15

US FORESTS 57% privately owned; 20% US Gov.; 15% Corporations; 8% State & local Gov. Privately owned forests can be protected through the Forest Legacy Program Landowner grants a conservation easement US Gov. buys the land, agreeing not to develop it for a certain number of years National Forests have multiple uses. timber, livestock, water & watershed protection, mining, recreation & habitat Issues confrontations over multiple uses building of logging roads with tax revenues clear cutting 16

Land ownership in US Includes ecosystems from tundra to desert 55% owned privately 3% owned by Native Americans ~35% owned by the Federal Govt. Includes ecosystems from tundra to desert Contains important resources such as minerals, fossil fuels, historical significance or critical habitat Mostly in Alaska and 11 western states Managed by: 1. US Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) National Park Service (NPS) 2. Department of Agriculture U.S. Forest Service (USFS) ~7% owned by state/local Govt. 17

Public Land Use ~ 11% of Earth’s land area is protected International Categories of Public Lands a. National Parks b. Managed Resource Protected Areas c. Habitat/Species Management Areas d. Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas e. Protected Landscapes and Seascapes f. National Monuments Lands are classified according to how they are used.

b. managed for scientific, educational, and recreational use National Parks a. 3,400 in the world b. managed for scientific, educational, and recreational use c. not used for extraction of resources Exist to generate tourism and protect animal species Negative: government have evicted some indigenous people from their homes http://parks.mapquest.com/national-parks/rocky-mountain-national-park/

Managed Resource Protected Areas a. 4,100 sites b. allows for sustained use of biological, mineral and recreational uses c. ex) national forests http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallatin_National_Forest

Habitat/Species Management Areas a. 27,600 sites b. actively managed to maintain biological communities c. done through predator prevention, etc. http://data.prbo.org/partners/mwadc/index.php?page=habitat-mgmt

Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas a. 6,000 sites b. established to protect species and ecosystems http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/151030/

Protected Landscapes and Seascapes a. 6,500 sites b. nondestructive use of natural resources with opportunities for tourism and recreation c. ex) orchards, beaches, etc http://batanesryan.blogspot.com/

b. protect unique sites of natural and cultural interest National Monuments a. 20,000 b. protect unique sites of natural and cultural interest http://www.shedexpedition.com/arc-de-triomphe/

Public Land in the US Owned by federal, state, or local government’s Federal is the largest (~25% of country) Classification a. include - rangelands, national forests, national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas

a. used for recreation, grazing, timber, and mineral extraction Multiple-Use Lands a. used for recreation, grazing, timber, and mineral extraction Done in order to manage competing interests (done by the US government) Other lands are designated as protected lands

a. Bureau of Land Management - grazing, mining, recreation, timber Federal Agencies a. Bureau of Land Management - grazing, mining, recreation, timber b. United States Forest Service - timber, grazing, mining c. National Park Service - recreation and conservation d. Fish and Wildlife Service - wildlife conservation, hunting, recreation The use of land determines how it is classified. More than 95% of all federal lands are managed by four federal agencies.

Land Management Practices Rangelands a. dry, open grasslands b. primarily used for cattle grazing c. Grazing 1. benefit - uses less fossil fuel then feedlots 2. consequence - leaves land exposed to erosion http://ecotope.org/anthromes/v1/guide/rangelands/ leaves land exposed to wind erosion making it difficult for soil to absorb and retain water

b. used for commercial logging - pulp and wood Forests a. dominated by trees b. used for commercial logging - pulp and wood c. harvesting techniques 1. clear-cutting - removing all trees in an area - forests are replanted all at once - steep slopes: loss of soil and nutrients - increases sunlight reaching water - replanting * use of herbicides and fire * reduces soil quality, contaminates water, reduces biodiversity http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/doc/siteprofile/acebasin/html/modules/landuse/lmclcut.htm Commercial logging companies are allowed to use these private lands due to exchange for a royalty (percentage of their revenues) Federal government tends to spend more money on managing the timber program than what it receives in revenue Clear-cutting - easiest method - replanted forests are composed of trees the same age - steep slopes – increased wind and and water erosion, erosion adds silt and sediment to streams - replace these areas with what is called tree plantations that are easily harvested in cycles because they grow quickly due to full sunlight

2. selective-cutting - removes single tree among many - creates small openings - trees of different ages - shade-tolerant 3. Impacts of both types of harvesting - logging roads to carry equipment * destruction of habitats * compaction of soil  loss of nutrients and ability to infiltrate water http://allthingsconnect.wordpress.com/2013/03/02 /blog-post-3-environmental-history-and-worldviews/

d. Fire Management - natural process for nutrient cycling - provides openings for early-successional species - prescribed burn * fire set under controlled conditions Build up of dead biomass on forest floor if fires do not happen therefore we do them under controlled settings Best example: fire in yellowstone national park summer of 1988 Fires have created new nutrient rich habitats for species http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_fires_of_1988

Rangelands Temperate & Tropical Grasslands Predominant vegetation includes grasses, forbs, and shrubs Provide fodder for livestock Animals eat the leafy shoots of the grass and the fibrous roots continue to develop, allowing the plant to recover and re-grow Can actually encourage greater plant diversity Cannot exceed carrying capacity Overgrazed land BAD!!!! Can lead to Desertification: rangeland converted to desert due to drought and or overgrazing 32

Rangelands Desertification is result of overuse of the land leaving it dry and erosion removes the little topsoil present and the sand left behind forms dunes. Reduces agricultural productivity, forces organisms out and threatens endangered species About 135 Million people are in danger of displacement due to desertification

National Parks Service Protect land & biological diversity in an unimpaired condition 385 sites (57 of them are National Parks) Many parks are threatened Human Activities- littering, graffiti, pollution, development around parks Large mammal population decrease (Bears) Large mammal population increase (Elk) Parks are now managed using Natural Regulation Populations are allowed to fluctuate naturally due to weather or predators Fires are not suppressed unless they threaten people Park managers DO control exotic species invasion 34

National Parks a. 58 in US b. Goal 1. based on multiple-use principle 2. set aside to protect ecosystems c. human activities 1. air and water pollution 2. lead to destruction of habitats

Wildlife Refuges and Wilderness Areas a. protecting wildlife b. limited human use and are road less

Federal Regulation a. National Environmental Policy Act - assesses all projects b. Environmental Impact Statement - analyzes environmental impact c. Environmental Mitigation Plan - how will the impact be addressed d. Endangered Species Act - designed to protect species