14 Architecture

Learning Objectives Consider the function of architecture to record and reflect a culture's values. Explain the need for architects to combine function, form, and structure. Identify traditional materials and methods used in architecture. Describe the relationship of technological innovations to changes in architectural forms and structures. Recognize the impact of contemporary environmental concerns on architecture.

Introduction Dolmen in southwest England Architecture One of the oldest surviving structures Most likely served in housing the dead Architecture The art and science of designing and constructing buildings not only for practical purposes Symbolic and aesthetic Seeks to enhance daily our daily lives

Dolmen. Chûn Quoit, Penwith. Cornwall, England Dolmen. Chûn Quoit, Penwith. Cornwall, England. James Lynch/The Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd. [Fig. 14-1] Dolmen. Chûn Quoit, Penwith. Cornwall, England. James Lynch/The Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd. [Fig. 14-1]

An Art and A Science Integration of three issues A physics problem Function (how a building is used) Form (how it looks) Structure (how it stands up) A physics problem Must design to accommodate compression (pushing), tension (stretching), and bending (curving) Combination of physical forces

An Art and A Science Three essential components Supporting skeleton Outer skin Operating equipment Plumbing, electrical wiring, etc. Not included in earlier centuries

Traditional Materials and Methods Early buildings Housing evolution from caves in hunter-gatherer times Huts and tents to more substantial structures Regional styles developed from available materials Not yet modern transportation or technology to spread styles

Traditional Materials and Methods Wood, stone, and brick Each has strengths and weaknesses Light wood used for roof beams Heavy stone used for load-bearing but ineffective as a beam Most of world's major architecture composed of stone because of its permanence, availability, and beauty

Traditional Materials and Methods Dry masonry Piling stones atop one another Called masonry when done with a consistent pattern Stones dressed if they are cut or shaped Great Zimbabwe in East Africa Original function still unknown No windows, as they weaken masonry Great pyramids in Egypt

Great Zimbabwe, plan. Before 1450. Height of wall 30'. Zimbabwe. [Fig Great Zimbabwe, plan. Before 1450. Height of wall 30'. Zimbabwe. [Fig. 14-2a] Great Zimbabwe, plan. Before 1450. Height of wall 30'. Zimbabwe. [Fig. 14-2a]

Great Zimbabwe, interior. Before 1450. Height of wall 30'. Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe, interior. Before 1450. Height of wall 30'. Zimbabwe. Peter Groenendijk/Robert Harding. [Fig. 14-2b] Great Zimbabwe, interior. Before 1450. Height of wall 30'. Zimbabwe. Peter Groenendijk/Robert Harding. [Fig. 14-2b]

Traditional Materials and Methods Post and beam Post-and-beam (post-and-lintel) Vertical posts bear the weight of horizontal beams and carry it to the ground. Form determined by strengths and weaknesses of materials used Stone beams shorter than wooden beams Strength-to-weight ratios

Post-and-Beam Construction. [Fig. 14-3] Architectural Simulation: Post and Lintel Construction Post-and-Beam Construction. [Fig. 14-3] Post-and-Beam Construction. [Fig. 14-3]

Traditional Materials and Methods Post and beam Row of columns is a colonnade Seen in Colonnade and Court of Amenhotep III Symmetrical arrangement Arrangement generally hierarchical Refined by Greeks Parthenon and other architecture

Colonnade and Court of Amenhotep III, Temple of Amun-Mut-Khonsu Colonnade and Court of Amenhotep III, Temple of Amun-Mut-Khonsu. 18th dynasty, c.1390 BCE. Luxor, Thebes, Egypt. Alistair Duncan © Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 14-4] Colonnade and Court of Amenhotep III, Temple of Amun-Mut-Khonsu. 18th dynasty, c.1390 BCE. Luxor, Thebes, Egypt. Alistair Duncan © Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 14-4]

Traditional Materials and Methods Round arch, vault, and dome Round arch Supported by column or pier Called barrel vault when extended into tunnel-like structure Vault Bricks or blocks in a unified ceiling shell Reinforced concrete in recent times

Round Arch. [Fig. 14-5] Round Arch. [Fig. 14-5]

Barrel Vault. [Fig. 14-6] Barrel Vault. [Fig. 14-6]

Traditional Materials and Methods Round arch, vault, and dome Vault Roman construction First to use vaults above ground Developed intersection of two barrel vaults called a groin arch Final stone set in place at the top called keystone Load-bearing Series of these called an arcade

Groin Vault. [Fig. 14-7] Groin Vault. [Fig. 14-7]

Arcade. [Fig. 14-8] Arcade. [Fig. 14-8]

Traditional Materials and Methods Round arch, vault, and dome Vault Roman construction Aqueduct bridge, Pont du Gard Top level carried water First level a bridge for traffic Introduced liquid concrete Cheap, stonelike, versatile, and strong

Video: Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct) Pont du Gard. 15 CE. Limestone. Height 161', length 902'. Nîmes, France. Photograph: Duane Preble. [Fig. 14-9] Pont du Gard. 15 CE. Limestone. Height 161', length 902'. Nîmes, France. Photograph: Duane Preble. [Fig. 14-9]

Traditional Materials and Methods Round arch, vault, and dome Dome Hemispherical vault built up from a circular or polygonal base Weight pushes downward and outward along circumference

Dome (arch rotated 180°). [Fig. 14-10a]

Dome on a cylinder. [Fig. 14-10b]

Dome on pendentives. [Fig. 14-10c] Architectural Simulation: Pendentives Dome on pendentives. [Fig. 14-10c] Dome on pendentives. [Fig. 14-10c]

Traditional Materials and Methods Round arch, vault, and dome Dome Hagia Sophia, Byzantine cathedral Built sixth century Islamic Minaret towers added later Dome resting on triangular pendentives Carry enormous weight down to squares of supporting walls Appears to float due to row of windows encircling the base

Web Resource: Sacred Destinations: Hagia Sophia Closer Look: Hagia Sophia Hagia Sophia, exterior. 532–535. Istanbul, Turkey. Photograph: Ayhan Altun. [Fig. 14-11a] Hagia Sophia, exterior. 532–535. Istanbul, Turkey. Photograph: Ayhan Altun. [Fig. 14-11a]

Hagia Sophia, interior. 532–535. Istanbul, Turkey Hagia Sophia, interior. 532–535. Istanbul, Turkey. Photograph: Ayhan Altun. [Fig. 14-11b] Hagia Sophia, interior. 532–535. Istanbul, Turkey. Photograph: Ayhan Altun. [Fig. 14-11b]

Traditional Materials and Methods Pointed arch and vault New technology in the Western world As seen in the center aisle, cathedral of Notre-Dame de Chartres Steeper than a round arch Sends weight directly downward Sideways thrust must be countered by supports

Notre-Dame de Chartres; interior, nave. 1145–1513 Notre-Dame de Chartres; interior, nave. 1145–1513. Height 122', width 53', length 130'. Chartres, France. © Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 14-12] Notre-Dame de Chartres; interior, nave. 1145–1513. Height 122', width 53', length 130'. Chartres, France. © Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 14-12]

Traditional Materials and Methods Pointed arch and vault Gothic builders Buttresses at right angles to outer walls bear thrust Flying buttresses in some structures Carry weight outward Place skeleton on outside to allow more height and light (Godly presence) Highest part of interior above the main altar

Gothic Arch. [Fig. 14-13] Gothic Arch. [Fig. 14-13]

Flying Buttresses. [Fig. 14-14]

Traditional Materials and Methods Truss and balloon frame Timbers or logs used as trusses Triangular framework used to span or support Balloon frame Timbers replaced with thin studs held together with nails Reduced construction time and wood consumption Aided rapid settlement

Trusses. [Fig. 14-15] Trusses. [Fig. 14-15]

Balloon Frame. [Fig. 14-16] Balloon Frame. [Fig. 14-16]

Modern Materials and Methods Cast iron 19th century uniform smelting technology Allowed for lighter exterior walls and flexible interior spaces The Crystal Palace, Joseph Paxton Built for the first international exposition Covered 19 acres of park land Freed from past styles of construction

Architectural Simulation: Cast-Iron Construction Joseph Paxton. Crystal Palace. 1850–1851. Cast iron and glass. London. The Newberry Library. Photograph: Stock Montage, Inc. [Fig. 14-17] Joseph Paxton. Crystal Palace. 1850–1851. Cast iron and glass. London. The Newberry Library. Photograph: Stock Montage, Inc. [Fig. 14-17]

Modern Materials and Methods Cast iron The Crystal Palace, Joseph Paxton Glass and cast iron not applied as ornamentation, but structure Inspired by leaf structures Flexible modular units Showed defect of susceptibility to fire Buckling of unprotected metal struts Burned down in 1936

Modern Materials and Methods Steel and reinforced concrete Multistory steel-frame construction in the late 1880s Elevators Louis Sullivan First great modern architect Early skyscrapers Wainwright Building in St. Louis Exterior reflects interior frame

Architectural Simulation: Concrete Architectural Simulation: The Skyscraper Closer Look: Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building Louis Sullivan. Wainwright Building. 1890–1891. St. Louis, Missouri. © Art on File/CORBIS. All rights reserved. [Fig. 14-18] Louis Sullivan. Wainwright Building. 1890–1891. St. Louis, Missouri. © Art on File/CORBIS. All rights reserved. [Fig. 14-18]

Modern Materials and Methods Steel and reinforced concrete Louis Sullivan "Form ever follows function" allowed rethinking of structure from inside out International Style Expressed function of each building Works with underlying structure Logical

Modern Materials and Methods Steel and reinforced concrete Le Corbusier Domino Construction System Six steel supports placed in concrete slabs at approximate location of spots on a domino game piece Supporting floors and roof on interior load-bearing rather than exterior Allows for more windows Flexible living spaces

Le Corbusier. Domino Construction System Le Corbusier. Domino Construction System. Perspective drawing for Domino Housing Project. 1914. © 2013 Artists rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris/F.L.C. [Fig. 14-19] Le Corbusier. Domino Construction System. Perspective drawing for Domino Housing Project. 1914. © 2013 Artists rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris/F.L.C. [Fig. 14-19]

Modern Materials and Methods Steel and reinforced concrete Walter Gropius International Style Bauhaus Dessau, Germany Non-weight–bearing curtain walls made of glass Art Deco style An abstractly decorated response to stripped-down International Style The Kress Building in Hollywood

Video: SFMOMA: Karen Koehler on architect Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus Movement Walter Gropius. Bauhaus Building, exterior. 1926–1927. Vanni Archive/CORBIS. © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn. [Fig. 14-20] Walter Gropius. Bauhaus Building, exterior. 1926–1927. Vanni Archive/CORBIS. © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn. [Fig. 14-20]

Edward F. Sibbert. Kress Building. 1935. Hollywood, California Edward F. Sibbert. Kress Building. 1935. Hollywood, California. Photograph: Patrick Frank. [Fig. 14-21] Edward F. Sibbert. Kress Building. 1935. Hollywood, California. Photograph: Patrick Frank. [Fig. 14-21]

Modern Materials and Methods Steel and reinforced concrete Steel frame construction The Seagram Building Non-load-bearing glass walls Vertical lines emphasize height and pattern Gained interior floor space inside the building Embodies "less is more"

Steel-Frame Construction. [Fig. 14-22]

Video: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building: SmartHistory Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson. Seagram Building. 1956–1958. New York. Photograph: Andrew Garn. [Fig. 14-23] Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson. Seagram Building. 1956–1958. New York. Photograph: Andrew Garn. [Fig. 14-23]

Modern Materials and Methods Recent innovations Suspension structure technique Bridges and tents Denver International Airport Giant tent roof of woven fiberglass Inspired by Rocky Mountains Art Museums A place to exhibit cutting-edge architecture

Fentress-Bradburn Architects. Jeppesen Terminal Building. 1994 Fentress-Bradburn Architects. Jeppesen Terminal Building. 1994. Denver International Airport. Photograph provided courtesy of the Denver international Airport. [Fig. 14-24] Fentress-Bradburn Architects. Jeppesen Terminal Building. 1994. Denver International Airport. Photograph provided courtesy of the Denver international Airport. [Fig. 14-24]

Modern Materials and Methods Recent innovations Art Museums Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver Modern Wing of Art Institute of Chicago Carbon fiber Technical advance that allows for weaving of buildings Aircraft parts, racing car bodies

Frank O. Gehry. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. 1997. Bilbao, Spain Frank O. Gehry. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. 1997. Bilbao, Spain. Photograph by Erika Barahona Ede © FMGB. [Fig. 14-25] Frank O. Gehry. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. 1997. Bilbao, Spain. Photograph by Erika Barahona Ede © FMGB. [Fig. 14-25]

Modern Materials and Methods Recent innovations Tokyo's public seminar space Components light enough to be handled by one person easily Elements on pulleys Cross-laminated timber (CLT) Laminating slabs of wood with grains at an angle More earthquake resistant

Atelier Bow-Wow. BMW Guggenheim Lab. 2011–2012 Atelier Bow-Wow. BMW Guggenheim Lab. 2011–2012. Open-air, carbon fiber structure. Berlin, Germany. Photo: Christian Richters © 2012 Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation.[Fig. 14-26] Atelier Bow-Wow. BMW Guggenheim Lab. 2011–2012. Open-air, carbon fiber structure. Berlin, Germany. Photo: Christian Richters © 2012 Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation.[Fig. 14-26]

Modern Materials and Methods Recent innovations Cross-laminated timber (CLT) Carbon-neutral building material Alex Monroe jewelry store Ground floor showroom Upper floors for workshops and meetings Build in a week

DSDHA. Alex Monroe jewelry store. 2011. Snowsfields, London DSDHA. Alex Monroe jewelry store. 2011. Snowsfields, London. Photo © Dennis Gilbert/VIEW. [Fig. 14-27] DSDHA. Alex Monroe jewelry store. 2011. Snowsfields, London. Photo © Dennis Gilbert/VIEW. [Fig. 14-27]

Forming Art Xten Architecture: Shaping a Building Proposal for State Archive in Lucerne, Switzerland Underground storage levels for temperature-sensitive documents Tower facing northward for natural light Windows with a view of the city Concrete poured on-site to reflect local soil and sloping landscape

Xten Architecture. Proposal for State Archive. 2011 Xten Architecture. Proposal for State Archive. 2011. Lucerne, Switzerland. Bird's eye view. [Fig. 14-28a] Xten Architecture. Proposal for State Archive. 2011. Lucerne, Switzerland. Bird's eye view. [Fig. 14-28a]

Xten Architecture. Proposal for State Archive. 2011 Xten Architecture. Proposal for State Archive. 2011. Lucerne, Switzerland. Process Diagram. [Fig. 14-28b] Xten Architecture. Proposal for State Archive. 2011. Lucerne, Switzerland. Process Diagram. [Fig. 14-28b]

Ground Plan. [Fig. 14-28c] Ground Plan. [Fig. 14-28c]

Designing with Nature Building with an awareness of surroundings Frank Lloyd Wright First to use open planning Eliminated walls between rooms Placed windows in corners Sliding glass doors inspired by Japanese screens

Designing with Nature Frank Lloyd Wright Use of cantilevers Portion extending far from supporting column or wall Kaufmann Residence at Bear Run, Pennsylvania Vertical accents influenced by trees Seems to float above waterfall In harmony with nature

Architectural Panorama: Kaufmann House (Fallingwater, ground floor) Architectural Panorama: Kaufmann House (Fallingwater, second floor) Video: Fallingwater Frank Lloyd Wright. Fallingwater (Edgar Kaufmann Residence). 1936. Bear Run, Pennsylvania. Mike Dobel/Alamy © 2013 Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, Scottsdale, AZ/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. [Fig. 14-29] Web Resource: Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Frank Lloyd Wright. Fallingwater (Edgar Kaufmann Residence). 1936. Bear Run, Pennsylvania. Mike Dobel/Alamy © 2013 Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, Scottsdale, AZ/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. [Fig. 14-29]

Contemporary Approaches Green Building Council in U.S. Awards for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver Atop a cleaned-up hazardous waste site Roof garden Double-skin facade reduces need for heating and cooling Greenest museum yet

David Adjaye. Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver. 2007 David Adjaye. Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver. 2007. Denver, Colorado. Photo by Dean Kaufman, courtesy Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver. [Figure 14-30] David Adjaye. Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver. 2007. Denver, Colorado. Photo by Dean Kaufman, courtesy Museum of Contemporary Art, Denver. [Figure 14-30]

Contemporary Approaches mkSolair Home, Michelle Kaufmann Green single-family home design Efficient insulation and low-flow fixtures Aqua Tower in Chicago Skyscraper incorporating green features Curving balconies Bamboo floors and a garden roof Redesigning existing buildings to be green

Michelle Kaufmann. mkSolaire Home. 2008. Prefabricated house Michelle Kaufmann. mkSolaire Home. 2008. Prefabricated house. As exhibited at Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago. Photo by John Swain Photography, courtesy of the artist. [Fig. 14-31] Michelle Kaufmann. mkSolaire Home. 2008. Prefabricated house. As exhibited at Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago. Photo by John Swain Photography, courtesy of the artist. [Fig. 14-31]

Jeanne Gang/Studio Gang Architects. Aqua Tower. 2010. Chicago, Illinois. Steve Hall © Hedrich Blessing. Courtesy of Studio Gang Architects. [Fig. 14-32] Jeanne Gang/Studio Gang Architects. Aqua Tower. 2010. Chicago, Illinois. Steve Hall © Hedrich Blessing. Courtesy of Studio Gang Architects. [Fig. 14-32]