Session 3: Building Arguments and Evidence ECUST—CDEN Workshop for Debate and Public Speaking Teachers June 3-5, 2016 Session 3: Building Arguments and Evidence

Basic Model of Communication Speaker Message Audience

Basic Parts of an Argument Claim: A clear and contestable statement about a topic Evidence: Something to support the claim Reasoning / Warrant: Something that explains how evidence supports the claim

Modeling an Argument The Toulmin Model Evidence Claim Reasoning / Warrant

Argument Example Topic: Public speaking Claim: In order to improve English proficiency, all ECUST students should be required to take a semester of English public speaking. Evidence: Universities that require public speaking have higher test scores. Reasoning / Warrant: What works at other universities is likely to work at ECUST.

Modeling an Argument In order to improve English proficiency, all ECUST students should be required to take English public speaking. Universities that require public speaking have higher test scores. What works at other universities is likely to work at ECUST.

Thesis Statements More narrow than a topic Should be: Clear Contestable Controversial Compelling How is a speech thesis different from a paper thesis?

Thesis Statement Poor Thesis: Public speaking classes are useful. Good Thesis: Students should take public speaking classes because they are useful. Better Thesis: ECUST students should take public speaking classes because they help build English proficiency.

Activity: Crafting a Thesis Statement In groups: Topic: Chinese students studying in the United States Create a thesis statement that is clear, contestable, and compelling for a persuasive speech about this topic

Activity: Crafting a Thesis Statement If a student came to you with this thesis, how would you encourage them to improve it? Thesis: American college students should visit China.

Using Evidence Effectively Purposes of Evidence: To make a claim clear and concrete To make a claim vivid To show the truth of a claim To present the speaker as credible

Sample Categories of Evidence Stories Analogies Expert Statistics Visuals

Evidence: Stories Strengths Invite empathy and identification Contribute to the credibility of the speaker Weaknesses May be unrepresentative Can be easily dismissed

Enhance Power of a Story Real stories have more rhetorical force than hypothetical ones Offer more than one story Compensate for the lonely example with statistical measures showing frequency or occurrence

Evidence: Analogies Strengths Can make a concept or problem vivid Can crystallize an idea into a single phrase Can make links between what is known and unknown Weaknesses In logical terms, gives no proof Can seem irrelevant, be misunderstood

Enhance Power of Analogy In general, an analogy is more powerful when there are many points of similarities between the items being compared. Analogies also have greater force when they are fresh, original.

Evidence: Expert Testimony Strengths Can provide clear interpretation of complex data Can enhance credibility of the speaker Weaknesses Often misused, fallacious Can seem disconnected from audience experience

Enhance Power of Expert Testimony Demonstrate that the authority figure has expertise on the topic: Use experts who have access to the necessary info, are qualified to interpret that information, are acknowledged as experts on the subject. Contrast the generalizations of an expert with examples of testimony, stories from people who have experienced the problem.

Evidence: Statistics Strengths Can be logically strong because they are measures of frequency Give appearance of objectivity and precision Weaknesses Statistics can be used to distort and misrepresent Statistics can be impersonal, difficult to remember

Enhance Power of Statistics Transform statistics into proportions and relationships that are within our personal experience. Compensate for the impersonality of statistics by connecting them to a story Compensate for the complexity of statistics with a visual aid Compensate for the complexity of data with interpretation of experts

Evidence: Visuals Strengths Package ideas quickly and holistically. Simplify complex ideas and engage readers. Weakness Can oversimplify and thus distort issues because they lack context. Can be distracting Can be misinterpreted

Enhance Power of Visuals Compensate for the risk of distraction by keeping it simple. Don’t show competing images. Compensate for the risks of distortion and misinterpretation by providing context and direction: point out what you want the audience to note about the visual (especially graphs)

Selecting Evidence for Arguments Class activity: 1. Select an argument (from list provided) 2. Decide what type(s) of evidence you would use to make the argument to this audience; explain why you would choose to use that kind of evidence.

Analysis of Evidence What is the main idea (claim) of the speech? What do you think is the most effective form of evidence used by the speaker and why? If you were advising the speaker, what if anything would you suggest he do to strengthen his use of evidence?