HISTORY AND APPROACHES AP/PSYCHOLOGY HISTORY AND APPROACHES

sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? PSYCHOLOGY – is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes of human and nonhuman animals. (old) BEHAVIOR: any action that can be observed, measured and recorded. MENTAL PROCESSES: are the internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior. PSYCHOLOGY – is the science of behavior and the mental processes. (new) (anything an organism does) sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? The key word in the definition is science. As a science, psychology seeks to use empirical methods : To observe To measure To predict To explain To positively influence behavior.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Some psychologists focus on biology of behavior and mental processes. Influences of nerve cells Genetics Hormones Other psychologists study complex social behaviors. Aggression Attraction Prejudice There are many varied approaches to the study of psychology making it a complex field.

EARLY INFLUENCES ON PSYCHOLOGY Historians trace psychology’s beginnings to the philosophers of ancient Greece. Socrates and Plato believed the body and mind were separate and only the mind survived after death. (dualism) Because Greek philosophers observed, interpreted, and organized our perceptions, that was the beginning of the empirical investigation in psychology. Aristotle suggested the mind could not be separated from the body, because the mind and body were different aspects of the same thing. (monism)

EARLY INFLUENCES ON PSYCHOLOGY Greek philosophers questioned if thought and behavior were innate or learned through experiences. Nature vs Nurture Socrates and Plato believed that ideas were innate supporting nature. Aristotle asserted ideas resulted from experience nurture.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Rene Descartes was very interested in expanding the mind-body problem, so he reasoned some ideas were innate and others were derived from experience. By combining Philosophy and Physiology, this became an important step in the birth of psychology as a science. British Philosopher, John Locke, believed like Aristotle, ideas were not innate and presented the idea of the mind as a blank slate (tabula rasa) Locke’s view, knowledge should be gained through careful observation and from experimental evidence is know as empiricism.

History and Approaches Historical Perspectives of Scientific Psychology

Birth of Psychology as a Science Before long, this new science of psychology became organized into different branches or schools of thought each promoted by different thinkers. These early schools included structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, gestalt and psychoanalysis. Birth of Psychology as a Science Psychological science as a formal discipline began in 1879 with the establishment of the first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt. It was solely devoted to the scientific study of psychology. Wundt studied the complex concepts of consciousness by dividing the mind into component elements in a perspective later known as structuralism. Wundt used an experimental method called introspection (to be aware of one’s awareness from the inside of the mind)that involved having subjects report the content of their own mind as objectively as possible.

Birth of Psychology as a Science structuralism (examining consciousness by breaking it down into basic components or structures; like sensations, images, and feelings) Birth of Psychology as a Science Introspection (looking inward by describing a person’s sensations. Edward Titchener, Wundt’s student, joined Cornell university in 1892, and started his own laboratory in the USA. Through Wundt’s thoughts and ideas, he developed structuralism utilizing self reflective introspection. Wilhelm Wundt Edward Titchener

Birth of Psychology as a Science Functionalism is a theoretical school inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection; it focused on discovering the functions of behavior and mental processes that help organisms adapt to a changing environment. Birth of Psychology as a Science Structuralism focuses on the “what” of consciousness, while functionalism focuses on the “why” of consciousness. While structuralists were trying to assemble the structure of the mind (understanding a car) others were looking at the mind differently. William James published the first psychology textbook, The Principles of Psychology. Stream of consciousness – describes the way the mind experiences perception and thought as a constant flow of sensation. William James considered how our thoughts and feelings function. He not only published the first psychology textbook, The Principles of Psychology, he founded the school of thought, functionalism.

Birth of Psychology as a Science AMERICAN WOMEN IN PSYCHOLOGY Mary Wilton Caulkins – was most famous for her development of important techniques for studying memory. Despite being denied a Ph.D. from Harvard because of her gender, Caulkins became the first female president of the American Psychological Association. Margaret Floy Washburn – approx. 4 years later, under Edward Titchener, she did significant research on animal behavior and greatly influenced the emerging perspective of behaviorism. During that time period Harvard did award her the title of the first woman to formally earn a Ph.D. in psychology.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Levels of Analysis – the differing complementary views, from biological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. Biopsychosocial approach – a integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Like different academic disciplines, psychology has varied approaches or perspectives which ask different questions. These perspectives have different levels of analysis. By using multiple perspectives the different levels of analysis are integrated into one viewpoint; Biopsychosocial approach.

Perspectives Perspectives Key Characteristics Contributors Psychoanalytic (early 1900’s to present) * The unconscious mind influences behavior. * Unconscious motives and childhood experiences influence personality. Sigmund Freud Carl Jung Alfred Adler Biological (1950’s to present) * Biological processes, especially in the brain, influence mental processes and behavior. * Biology and genetics, not environmental factors, determine behavior. Norman Geschwind Donald Hebb Cognitive (1950’s to present) * Perceptions and thoughts are major influences of behavior. * The brain processes, stores, and retrieves information, such as language. Jean Piaget Norm Chomsky Humanistic (1950’s to present) * Each individual’s sense of self influences his or her behavior. * People make free and conscious choices. Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow

Perspectives Continued Key Characteristics Contributors Sociocultural (1960’s to present) * Thinking and behavior is influenced by social and cultural identification. * Psychology should not neglect gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic factors. Lev Vygotsky Kenneth Clark Mamie Clark Evolutionary/ Sociobiological (1980’s to present) * Natural selection influences behavior and thinking. * Behaviors and thoughts that help ensure survival are passed on hereditarily over time. David Buss Leda Cosmides John Tooby Behavioral (1920 – to present) *Science is rooted in observation. * You cannot observe a sensation, a feeling, or a thought, but you can observe & record behavior in different situations. John B. Watson B.F. Skinner Today few psychologists would describe themselves as structuralists or functionalists. Traditional behaviorists and psychoanalysts have also been declining in recent years. It is important to remember that the approaches are not mutually exclusive, but rather are complementary tools that shed light from different angles.

Major Subfields Biopsychology This area of psychology is known by a number of titles including behavioral neuroscience, psychobiology, and neuropsychology. Biopsychologists study the relationship between the brain and behavior, such as how the brain and nervous system impact our thoughts, feeling, and moods. This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience. Clinical Psychology Clinical psychology is the largest specialty area in psychology. These psychologists apply psychological principles and research to assess, diagnose, and treat patients with mental and emotional illnesses. Clinicians often work in private practices, but many also work in community centers or at universities and colleges.

Major Subfields Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding the mental processes of how people think. Problem-solving, decision-making, language, intelligence, and attention are just a few of the topics studied by cognitive psychologists. Cognitive psychologists often use an information-processing model to describe how the mind works, suggesting that the brain stores and processes information much like a computer.

Major Subfields Developmental Psychology Developmental psychologists study the physical and cognitive development that occurs over the course of the lifespan. These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or geriatric development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays. Experimental Psychology Experimental psychologists utilize the scientific method to study a while range of human behaviors and psychological phenomena. Experimental psychology is often viewed as a distinct subfield within psychology, but experimental techniques and methods are actually used extensively throughout every subfield of psychology. Some of the methods used in experimental psychology include experiments, correlational studies, case studies, and naturalistic observation.

Major Subfields Forensic Psychology Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and treatments, or working directly in the court system. Forensic psychologists often conduct evaluations, screen witnesses, or provide testimony in court cases. Health Psychology Health psychology is centered on understanding how psychological, biological, social, and environmental factors influence health and wellness. Health psychologists are often deal with health-related issues such as weight management, smoking cessation, stress management, and nutrition. They also design prevention programs designed to educate people about risky behaviors and adopt healthier ones.

Major Subfields Industrial-Organizational Psychology •Psychologists in this field apply psychological principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. •Some psychologists in this field work in areas such as human factors, ergonomics, and human-computer interaction. •Research in this field is known as applied research because it seeks to solve real world problems. Personality Psychology •Personality psychologists study the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make each person unique. •These psychologists often work in academic settings as instructors or researchers.

Major Subfields Social Psychology •Social psychologists study social behaviors, including how individual self-image and behavior is impacted by interactions with others. •These psychologists often conduct research in academic settings, but others work in such areas such as advertising and government. School Psychology •School psychologists work within the educational system to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues.

Comparative Psychology Major Subfields Comparative Psychology This field of psychology is centered on the study of animal behavior. This area has its roots in the work of researchers such as Charles Darwin and Georges Romanes and has grown into a highly multidisciplinary subject. Psychologists often contribute to this field, as do biologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists and many others. Counseling Psychology This field is one of the largest individual areas within psychology. It is centered on treating clients experiencing mental distress and a wide variety of psychological symptoms. improve interpersonal functioning throughout life by improving social, and emotional health as well as addressing concerns about health, work, family, marriage, and more.

Educational Psychology Major Subfields Educational Psychology Psychologists who work in this field are focused on understanding how people learn. They might study how different variables influence individual student outcomes. They also study topics such as learning disabilities, giftedness, the instructional process, and individual differences. Human Factors Psychology Some of the subjects of interest in this interdisciplinary field include human error, product design, ergonomics, human capability, and human-computer interaction. People who work in human factors are focused on improving how people interact with products and machines both in and out of the workplace. They might help design products intended to minimize injury or create workplaces that promote greater accuracy and improved safety.

Major Subfields School Psychology Professionals in this field that work in schools to help kids deal with academic, emotional, and social issues. School psychologists also collaborate with teachers, students, and parents to help create a healthy learning environment. Sports Psychology Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase motivation. Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to enhance people’s lives and well-being throughout the entire lifespan.