To what extent can power legitimately be exercised by society over the individual? The Harm Principle – mankind can only legitimately interfere with the liberty of action of an individual if that act will cause harm to others. Power seen as necessary but dangerous. As long as people have certain liberties, they are happy with being governed. Children, barbarians and the mentally ill are discounted from this principle; education provides the key for freedom and responsibility. Interest in democracy emerged; people wanted their interests represented. However, too much power = tyranny of the majority. Inaction can also be an evil. Question: Where to place the limit between individual independence and social control. The only freedom in society is being able to pursue our own good in our own way, so long as we do not harm others. Chapter I Religious freedom has hardly ever been realised.

‘If mankind minus one were of one opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than he, if he had the power, would be in justifying mankind.’ Dr Johnson – enemy of religious freedom – persecution is an ordeal through which truth ought to pass. Catholic Church – distinction between those permitted to receive doctrines on conviction and those on trust. Gives the elite more mental culture, though no mental freedom to the mass. Wherever persecution is persisted in, it will triumph. However, no matter how many times a truth is put to rest, someone will rediscover it, and this will repeat until there are circumstances in which it can be accepted. Those who try and suppress opinions assume their own infallibility. If the teachers of mankind are to be knowledgeable in all areas, everything must be free to be written and published. However, judgement is given to men so that they might use it. If we were to never act upon our convictions we would not be fulfilling our duty. There are many truths that cannot be realised until experience has brought it home. No person can be allowed to give evidence in court who does not profess a belief in God. This, then, admits testimonies of those willing to lie, and rejects those who publicly admit a detested creed rather than admit a falsehood. Politics – a party of stability and one of reform is needed for healthy political life, until one becomes a party of both order and progress. However, one must not presume an opinion to be right or wrong without contesting it. If a truth is never questioned, mankind can never feel a complete assurance of its truth. The world would lose something by not hearing opposing views, even if they are wrong. Social opinion is just as effective as law. Christianity – passive rather than active, holding out the hope of heaven while imposing the threat of hell as its motives to a virtuous life. The entire moral courage of the human mind has been sacrificed, while leaving all prevailing opinions undisturbed. Men are now merely conformers to commonplace. Socrates – put to death for his opinions. Shows importance of reflection on opinions once seen as wrong. This cramps mental development. Chapter 2 Dead dogma – an ‘truth’ that is never discussed. Emperor Marcus Aurelius – one of the most intelligent and virtuous men of his time, yet he persecuted Christianity. Cultivation of understanding – learning the grounds of one’s own opinion.

Chapter 3 Actions should not be as free as opinions. Calvinistic theory – the greatest offence of man is freedom. All the good of humanity is found in obedience. Not only is intellect moderate, but tastes and desires are too. Freedom of speech depends on the situation; an bad opinion on a corn-dealer should be left alone when circulating, but may incur a penalty when delivered orally to an excited mob assembled outside the corn-dealer’s house. Society seems to be aiming towards having no marked character at all. With the development of his individuality, each person becomes more valuable to himself, and therefore more valuable to others. We only appear great by our habit of combining. Individual spontaneity is hardly recognised as having any intrinsic worth. We can learn from underdeveloped beings. The unfailing source of improvement is liberty. While it is generally agreed that no one should copy anyone when it comes to certain situations, it would be absurd to pretend that people ought to live their life as if they are the first to discover everything. Without originality, human life would become a stagnant pool. The East – despotism of custom is complete. They were progressive for a short amount of time, and then stopped, and now ceases to possess individuality. Their improvement must now come from foreigners. ‘Genius can only breathe freely in an atmosphere of freedom.’ General opinion arguably now rules the world, except the public’s thinking is done for them by the newspapers, rather than the Church or the State. All activities that humans partake in could be done instead by robots. This, however, would be a considerable loss. ‘Human nature is not a machine to be built after a model, but a tree, which requires to grow and develop itself on all sides.’ However, in Europe, change is not precluded, so long as all change together. We do not protest against change, but individuality. No government with a democracy has ever risen above this mediocrity. Classes are becoming assimilated. Previously, society imposed laws through which stronger men could be controlled, in order to control their character. The danger now is not strong characters, but deficient characters. ‘That so few now dare to be eccentric marks the chief danger of the time.’ Chapter 3 Unless there is diversity in one’s life, one will not grow up to the mental, moral and aesthetic stature of which their nature is capable.