Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates (Macromolecules) Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Sugars & Starches 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Carbohydrate – organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio Meaning: “hydrated carbon” ratio of h:0 is 2:1 (same as in water) Source: plants (photosynthesis) E.g. sugars & starches Most abundant of 4 macromolecules Main, primary energy source easily digested Found in all parts of cell provide energy needed for normal body functions (i.e. heartbeat, breathing, digestion) consume  digested into simple sugars (turned into blood sugar i.e. glucose) during cellular respiration, breakdown of glucose occurs in order to release its stored energy 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates Monosaccharide - simple carbohydrate (single, simple sugar) Chemical formula: c6h12o6 Structure: hydroxyl (-oh) groups & carbonyl (-c=o) group Contain a great deal of energy e.g. glucose, galactose, & fructose More easily processed & require little work from the body to digest. Simple carbohydrates digested & turned into glucose faster than complex structures, which require slightly more digestion & so therefore take longer to turn to usable energy. High in calories compared to nutritional content, & their thermic effect is very low (meaning: body does not expend much energy to digest this food, b/c process is easy). 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates Examples: Glucose Produced by green plants Galactose found in milk Fructose Found in fruit Same molecular formula (c6h12o6) but different arrangements of individual atoms (isomers) 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates Structure Linear or ring configuration Hydroxyl group (-oh) Attached to all carbon except 1 carbonyl group (-c=o) Carbon without an attached hydroxyl group is double-bonded to an oxygen All other available binding sites of carbon occupied by hydrogen atoms Monosaccharide rings such as that of glucose are frequently depicted as a Haworth projection (diagram that suggests the 3-dimension orientation of attached -H, OH, & -C2OH groups in relation to the ring. However, the glucopyranose ring does not actually lie in a flat plane as suggested by this projection. Instead, the ends of the ring are bent up or down, most frequently in the "chair" conformation. More over, the side groups attached to the ring extend at the various angles, not at right angles as depicted in the Haworth projection. The glucospyranose ring occurs in two forms that differ only in the orientation of the -OH group at the 1-carbon. In a Haworth projection -OH group points downward, in the alpha (a) form of the sugar, as in a-glucose. In the other form, the -OH group points upward from the ring in a beta (b) position of the sugar as in b-glucose. Although the difference between the two ring forms might seem trivial, it has great significance for the chemical properties of polysaccharides assembled from monsaccharide rings. For example. starches, which are assembled from a-glucose units, are soluble and easily digested. Cellulose, synthesized from b-glucose units, is insoluble and cannot be digested as a food source by most animals. The orientation of other groups attached to the carbon chain of carbohydrates also affects the properties and interactions of monosaccharides. 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Linear, straight chain model 3D Simple Carbohydrates GLUCOSE Animation Source: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm Linear, straight chain model 3D 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Linear, straight chain  ring Form Simple Carbohydrates GLUCOSE When Solid: Linear, Straight Chain Structure When in Water: Ring Structure Animation Source: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm Linear, straight chain  ring Form 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates GLUCOSE Image Source: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm Linear Structure Ring Structure 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Simple Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Dehydration Synthesis – reaction in which small molecules join to form a large molecule, removing water in the process Hydrogen (H) removed from 1 Monosaccharide & hydroxyl (Oh) removed from another 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Dehydration Synthesis – reaction in which small molecules join to form a large molecule, removing water in the process Hydrogen (H) removed from 1 Monosaccharide & hydroxyl (Oh) removed from another Animation Source: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Disaccharide – double sugar formed from combination of 2 simple sugars Molecular formula: C12H22O11 Formed from dehydration synthesis Contain a (covalent) bond between carbon (C) of one sugar & a oxygen (O) at any position on other sugar E.g. sucrose, lactose, & Maltose *oligosaccharides – made of small number of monosaccharide units (2 to 10) joined together. Oligosaccharides found in cell membranes & assist other membrane structures called glycolipids in cell recognition. 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Disaccharide – double sugar formed from combination of 2 simple sugars 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose (Table sugar) commonly used by plants to transport sugar from 1 part of plant to another 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar) -OH on C-1 of 1 monosaccharide & -OH on C-4 of another monosaccharide collectively give up 2 H & 1 O to form water & are then joined together by remaining O Why are some people lactose intolerant? Once bond has formed between glucose & galactose monosaccharides to form lactose, as in milk, it takes a special enzyme, lactase to break this unusual bond. Some people’s bodies do not have the genetic code needed to manufacture lactase, thus they are unable to digest the lactose in dairy products. This undigested lactose passes through their digestive tract until it is eventually fermented by the bacteria that normally live in everyone’s large intestines. When this happens it often produces gas, and may cause the person to have cramps and other unpleasant symptoms. These people are called lactose intolerant (this is different than an allergy). To help these people, synthetic lactase is commercially available under several brand names. Also, some of these people may be able to eat yogurt, cheese, or other dairy products in which bacteria have already broken down the lactose. Info & Image Source: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Glucose + glucose = Maltose (malt sugar) Image Source: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/carbohydrates.htm 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Polysaccharide - large molecule formed when many monosaccharides link together Composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides joined together through dehydration synthesis Most abundant of organic compounds Functions: structural support & storage E.g. starch, cellulose, & glycogen 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Examples: Cellulose – forms cell wall of plants; cannot be digested by animals Most animals that ingest grass or wood have special micro organisms living in their gut that digest the cellulose & animals in turn absorb the breakdown product 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates Examples: Starches (Found in plants) can be digested by animals Glycogen – starch like compound produced by animals. In mammals glycogen is stored in liver & muscles where it provides a quick source of energy & serves as a storage substance for excess glucose taken up from blood. 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates 2 Major Types: Storage polysaccharides – starches & related compounds in plants, & glycogen in animal liver & muscles. These giant molecules are made from repeating units of glucose in configuration, so they can all join together in a straight chain). Structural polysaccharides - include cellulose & related compounds. Cellulose is found in plant cell walls and is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. This provides us with fiber in our diet, wood, and paper. Cellulose is formed from glucose in the configuration, and for the -1-4 glycosidic linkages to form, every other glucose molecule must flip up side down, as we saw in lactose. Our bodies, and the bodies of almost all other animals, do not have the necessary enzymes to break this -linkage, thus we cannot digest cellulose, and it is the fiber or bulk in our diet. 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Complex Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Hydrolysis – catabolic reaction that splits apart molecules with the consumption of water 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates Hydrolysis – catabolic reaction that splits apart molecules with the consumption of water 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates hydrophillic 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates

Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates 11/28/2017 Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates