Rhetoric

RHETORIC Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” At its best, rhetoric is a thoughtful, reflective activity leading to effective communication, including the rational exchange of viewpoints. Those who understand and can use the available means to appeal to an audience of one or many find themselves in a position of strength.

RHETORIC CON’T. Rhetoric is also not just about speeches. Every essay, political cartoon, photograph, and advertisement is designed to convince you of something. These “texts” any cultural product that can be “read”, not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated. We need to be able to “read” between the lines regardless of whether we are reading a political ad, a political cartoon, or a political speech.

What does being skilled at rhetoric mean? Being skilled at rhetoric means being able to make good speeches, write good papers, but it also means having the ability to read other people’s compositions and listen to their spoken words with a discerning eye and a critical ear. Being skilled at rhetoric means reading not only to understand the main and supporting points of what someone writes but also to analyze decisions the rhetor makes as he or she works to accomplish a purpose for a specific audience. Being skilled at rhetoric mean being able to plan and write compositions and not just write them. Being skilled at rhetoric mean being able to examine a situation—in school, in your community, in society as a whole—and determine what has already been said and written, what remains unsolved, and what you might say or write to continue the conversation or persuade readers to take action.

Rhetorical Situation The rhetorical situation is composed of Occasion/Motive or need that drives a person, or rhetor, to write or speak. Exigence: an issue, problem, or situation that causes or prompts someone to write or speak. Audience who is affected by that motive, and the influence of different ideas and attitudes on how the rhetor and audience respond to the motive. Purpose/intention: what the author wants to have happen as a result of the text, what he/she wants the audience to believe or do after hearing/reading the text

The relationship among the speaker, audience, and subject. Rhetorical Triangle The relationship among the speaker, audience, and subject. Speaker or Writer Text Lou Gehrig speech Subject Audience or Reader

Rhetorical Triangle Speaker—person who creates the text. Persona—the difference between who the speaker is and the role the speaker plays when delivering the speech. Audience—the listener, the viewer, or reader of the text—there may be multiple audiences. Consider values, friendly or hostile, informed on the topic Subject—the topic. Not to be confused with the purpose.

Lou Gehrig Farewell Speech Read Speech Re-Read Number the paragraphs Circle key terms Underline the claim(s) Identify Occasion Context Purpose

Lou Gehrig Farewell Speech Why is this an effective speech? Rhetorical Situation Occasion Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day, announcement of retirement Context At home plate between games of double header Purpose

Lou Gehrig Farewell Speech Rhetorical Triangle Speaker—not just name of speaker, description of who the speaker is in the context of the text. Baseball hero, ALS victim Audience Fans (stands, radio, TV), teammates, opposing teams, current readers Subject

SOAPS Subject: The topic of a text. What the text is about. Occasion: Time, place, historical context, circumstances that give rise to the text. Audience: Individual(s) or group(s) to whom the text is supposed to appeal. Purpose: Writer or speakers intended reason for writing or delivering the text, what the speaker hopes to achieve. Speaker: The person or group who creates a text. Identity of the voice of the text, including relevant characteristics such as age, social class, education, reputation

George W. Bush 9/11 Speech Subject General Topic/Main idea Explicit: terrorist attacks the morning of September 11, 2001 Implicit: challenge to the status of the US as the most powerful nation in the world Occasion Time, place, historical circumstances A terrorist attack on the United States in three different locations. This was also the first time since Pearl Harbor (1941) that the US was attacked on its own soil. Audience Individual or group to whom the text is to appeal Immediate audience: the American citizens who want information and reassurance secondary audience: the world, allies, followers of Al Qaeda and nations that support Al Qaeda Purpose what the writer/speaker hopes to achieve Immediate purpose: to reassure the American people Larger audience: to condemn the perpetrators and enlist the support of other nations to bring them to justice. Speaker Identity of the voice of the text President Bush is speaking as the leader of the nation and leader of the free world and commander in chief of the military poised to defend and retaliate

Ethos Greek for “character” To demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy Often emphasizes shared values between the speaker and audience The speaker’s ethos—appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on any given subject. A speaker’s expertise, knowledge, experience, sincerity, common purpose with the audience, or a combination of these factors—gives the audience a reason for listening to this person on this subject. What does it mean to establish ethos?

Would you buy a car from any of these people?

The King’s Speech SOAPS Ethos What specific instances establish Ethos? Lou Gehrig Farewell Speech

Logos Greek for “embodied thought,” thinking logically--appeal to reason Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up. Creating a logical argument often involves defining the terms of the argument and identifying connections such as causality.

Conceding and Refuting One way to appeal to logos is the acknowledge a counterargument—to anticipate objections or opposing views In acknowledging a counterargument, you agree (concede) that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable, but then you deny (refute) the validity of all or part of the argument. This combination of concession and refutation actually strengthens your own argument; it appeals to logos by demonstrating that you understand a viewpoint other than your own. Counterargument—an opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer will usually address through the process of concession and refutation. From King Coal: Reigning in China, George Will

from King Coal: Reigning in China by George Will What quantitative information does Will provide? Does he cite any experts or studies? What documentation for his sources does he provide? Does this make a difference? (ethos)

Pathos Greek for “suffering” or “experience.” Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience’s values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other. An argument that appeals exclusively to emotion is by definition weak—an effective speaker or writer understands the power of evoking an audiences emotions by using tools such as figurative language, personal anecdotes, and vivid images.

Checker’s Speech Read Speech Re-Read Identify Pathos Pathos in Lou Gehrig Farewell Speech

Combining Ethos, Logos, Pathos Toni Morrison Letter to Obama Read Letter Re-Read Number the paragraphs Circle key terms Underline the claim(s) Identify Subject --Ethos Occasion --Logos Audience --Pathos Purpose Speaker Rhetorical Situation

Visual Texts SOAPS Rhetorical Situation Ethos Logos Pathos

The headline below the picture reads: It happens every day on America’s highways. Police stop drivers based on their skin color rather than for the way they are driving. For example, in Florida 80% of those stopped and searched were black and Hispanic, while they constituted only 5% of all drivers. These humiliating and illegal searches are violations of the Constitution and must be fought. Help us defend your rights. Support the ACLU. New York Times and New Yorker, 2000

Close Reading and Annotation Close reading is thoughtful, critical analysis of a text that focuses on significant details or patterns in order to develop a deep, precise understanding of the text's form, craft, meanings, etc. Annotation is a note added to a text as a comment or explanation

Methods Talking with the text: asking questions of a piece is an essential habit of mind and should be practiced. Annotating is not only fast and important in timed writings but also an effective way to become more attentive to details.

From “On Bird, Bird-Watching and Jazz” by Ralph Ellison Read out loud Re-read SOAPS Rhetorical Situation Write your own questions

Questions Par.1: Why does Ellison suggest that his audience might be “fans of the animated cartoons”? Ellison is finding common ground with his readers, people who take music and musicology seriously but who have both a sense of humor and appreciation of pop culture Par. 2: Why does Ellison say “hung the bird on Charlie” instead of a nickname for him? Ellison’s readers were likely well educated; however they might have liked seeing themselves as hip connoisseurs of avant-garde music, a desire Ellison develops by using slang. Juxtaposition with the academic language earlier in paragraph: “achieved identity”.

Par 4: Why does Ellison provide the mockingbird’s scientific name? Par 3: What is the effect of Ellison choosing the mockingbird over the goldfinch? Par 4: Why does Ellison provide the mockingbird’s scientific name? Juxtaposition of academic language and the language of pop culture. Ellison is playing with the academic language. What is the effect of the dashes? The phrase begins with the parallel “by” but speeds up with the list of sounds and then stops and doubles back after the dash. It’s a lovely piece of jazz improvisation.