Dictionaries, Linguistic Attitudes, and Usage What does “The Dictionary” say? Who establishes “correct usage”?

Standard Usage Described on a Latin model. Jonathan Swift (1710), Tatler essay on the state of English. Samuel Johnson (1755), Dictionary Robert Lowth, Bishop of London, A short introduction to English grammar (1762). Fowlers Modern Usage and The King’s English in the 20th century.

History of Dictionaries First comprehensive dictionary in English: Samuel Johnson 1755. Based on “authorities”-- The Great Authors (Shakespeare, Milton, etc.) Noah Webster 1828, An American Dictionary of the English Language The Oxford English Dictionary, begun 1857

The Oxford English Dictionary Begun in 1857 as the New English Dictionary Finished in 1928 Undergoing first full revision since its inception Based on historical principles Descriptive in Nature

The American Dictionary Wars Webster’s Third in 1961 rejected prescriptivism entirely, much to the displeasure of the American public and language “mavens” American Heritage stepped into the breach and tried to provide a “guide” to educated “middle-class usage”

Arbiters of Correctness OED relies on textual evidence as its authority American Heritage relies on a “Usage Panel” consisting of artists, academics, and public leaders: expert language users

Treatment of History OED third edition has abandoned Indo-European reconstructions American Heritage dictionary, because of close ties with Harvard University, includes an appendix of Indo-European roots, the only one available in English

Nature of Prescriptivism Posits a Standard Dialect invested with prestige and (frequently) “moral character” Good prescriptivists recognize the arbitrary, sociologically based nature of their judgments Bad prescriptivists insist on absolutes and use prescriptivism to preserve social control

Language Variation Domain of sociolinguists; formally of dialectologists. Revived in the 1970s by Labov and the Milroys. Labov studied individual variation (register and style shifts). Milroys studied network variations (register and style shifts among groups).

What are the Standard Dialects? OED uses Received Pronunciation, effectively educated Southern England, London usage: Oxbridge Usage. American Heritage uses dialect of Inland North, broadcasting standard as its standard, although it is still submitted to Usage Panel.

How Do We Manage Prescriptivism? Recognize it when it happens Recognize its uses Prescriptivists should create access for speakers of non-standard dialects, not restrict it Always ask, “Who is setting the standard here?”