Psychosocial Development in Infancy: Chapter 7 Human Development & Learning

Hail Mary, full of grace! The Lord is with thee; blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen.

Where we are headed… Emotional development in infancy Temperament Primary/Secondary Emotions Temperament Theories of psychosocial development Development of social bonds (Attachment) Fathers and infant care

Emotional Development in Infancy

Emotional Development First six months: Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

First 6 months: Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

Emotional Development Infants’ Emotions Smiling and Laughing Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity Anger First expressions at around 6 month Healthy response to frustration Sadness Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol Stressful experience for infants

Emotional Development Fear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations Stranger wariness: Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close Separation anxiety: Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. Normal at age 1, intensifies by age 2 If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

Toddler’s Emotions Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating New emotions: Pride Shame Embarrassment Guilt Require an awareness of other people Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture By age 2, children can display the entire spectrum of emotion

Emotional Development Self-awareness A person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers.* 5 months: Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.* 15-18 months: Emergence of the Me-self Sense of self as the “object of one’s knowledge” Even newborns react differently to the brush of their own hand vs. the brush of another’s hand. This suggests that the very fact that we are embodied causes us to enter the world with at least a primitive concept of me vs. not me. * This is what your textbook says, but research suggests that this is not the case. See slide notes

Emotional Development Classic experiment (Lewis & Brooks, 1978) Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses. None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them. 15- to 24-month-olds: Showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity. Video: Rouge test

Social Impulses Emotional Self-regulation Directly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions Toddlers get angry when a teasing older sibling approaches them or react with fear when entering the doctor’s office. Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences. Link: Empathy in Infants

Stress Strategies for reducing stress: Excessive stress can alter the brain Hypothalamus may grow more slowly Heightened stress activation Cognitive changes (e.g., threat sensitivity) Resilience? Strategies for reducing stress: Support new mothers Involve fathers in infant care Strengthen parental alliance Hypothalamus Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production May grow more slowly in stressed than in nonstressed infants Abuse (form of chronic stress) Potential long-term effects on a child’s emotional development High levels of stress hormones indicative of emotional impairment Excessive stress in infants must be prevented Stress can be avoided by: providing new mothers with help and emotional support involving new fathers in the care of the infant strengthening the relationship between mother and father

The HPA Axis The hypothalamus in the brain is in charge of the stress response. When a stress response is triggered, it sends signals to two other structures: the pituitary gland, and the adrenal medulla.  These short term responses are produced by The Fight or Flight Response via the Sympathomedullary Pathway (SAM). Long term stress is regulated by the Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) system.

Emotional Synesthesia? Early emotional confusion due possibly to underdeveloped brain structure that allows electrical impulses to spread across and activate different areas of the brain. Baby Oliver wakes up with every emotion Infant synesthesia in general: Mondloch, C.J., & Maurer, D. (2004). Do small white balls squeak? Pitch-object correspondences in young children. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 4(2), 133-136. 30-month olds shown small white ball and large grey ball, 11 of 12 associated high tone with small white ball. Less clear-cut with small and large white ball. Adult synesthetes: small, brightly colored objects make high sounds; large, dark objects associated with low tones.

Temperament

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Temperament Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices Closely linked to personality

Chess and Thomas’ Classification Temperament Chess and Thomas’ Classification Three basic types or clusters Easy child (40%): positive mood; quickly establishes routines; adapts easily to new experiences Difficult child (10%): reacts negatively; cries frequently; has irregular routines; slow to accept new experiences Slow-to-warm-up child (15%): low activity level; somewhat negative; shows low adaptability; displays low-intensity mood 35% Hard to classify

Temperament Over Time Longitudinal study of infant temperament (Fox et al., 2001): Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation Positive (exuberant) Negative Inhibited (fearful vs. low reactive) Less than half altered their responses as they grew older Fearful infants were most likely to change Exuberant infants were least likely to change Maturation and child rearing has effect on inborn temperament

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development

Goodness of Fit A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context, including family, school, and community With a good fit parents of difficult babies build a close relationship parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust

Applications of Goodness-of-Fit A “difficult” temperament promotes survival during famine conditions in Africa (De Vries, 1984) Why? Low activity level is a risk for mental retardation among children raised in a poor institution (Schaffer, 1966)

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Psychoanalytic theory Freud’s psychosexual stages Erikson’s psychosocial crises Behaviorism Direct learning Social learning Cognitive theory Sociocultural Theory Evolutionary Theory

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages FREUD: THE ORAL AND ANAL STAGES Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant’s primary source of gratification Anal stage (second year): Infant’s main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them) Potential conflicts: Oral fixation: 1) oral receptive 2) oral aggressive Anal personality: 1) anal compulsive 2) anal expulsive

Erikson’s Psychosocial Crises Trust versus Mistrust Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

Erikson’s Psychosocial Crises Age Crisis Relations Themes Virtue Malignancies I (0-1) trust vs mistrust mother to get, to give in return HOPE sensory maladjustment -- withdrawal II (2-3) -- toddler autonomy vs shame and doubt parents to hold on, to let go WILL impulsivity -- compulsion

Behaviorism Parents mold an infant’s emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment Social learning The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

Cognitive Theory Working model: Set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences Prototype for later relationships Importance of interpretation of early experiences Adjusted over time in response to new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.

Ethnotheory A theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture. Examples?

The Effects of Parenting Proximal parenting Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching Distal parenting Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

The Effects of Parenting Proximal: High compliance, low self-recognition Distal: Low compliance, high self-recognition (?)

Synchrony A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant Synchrony in the first few months Becomes more frequent and more elaborate Helps infants learn to read others’ emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants Video: Still-face experiment

Synchrony cont. Still-face technique Conclusions: An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stress Conclusions: A parent’s responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological development Infants’ brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

Attachment Attachment is a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person’s close relationships throughout life

Attachment

Attachment Types Secure attachment: An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. Insecure-avoidant attachment: An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return. Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: An infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion. Disorganized attachment: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

Measuring Attachment Strange Situation Key behaviors to observe: A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom. Key behaviors to observe: Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily. Reaction to the caregiver’s departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver. Reaction to the caregiver’s return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver’s reappearance.

Attachment Types

Measuring Attachment

Does the quality of attachment have significant consequences for later life relationships? But Children who do not have a secure attachment style during infancy do not invariably experience difficulties later in life Children with a secure attachment at age 1 do not always have good adjustment later in life Yes Securely attached 1- year-old males show fewer psychological difficulties at older ages Securely attached infants are more socially and emotionally competent later and more positively viewed Adult romantic relationships are associated with attachment style developed during infancy

Measuring Attachment

What roles do parents play in producing attachment? Mothers Sensitivity to their infants’ needs and desires is hallmark of mothers of securely attached infants Aware of moods and feelings Responsive in face-to-face interactions Feeds “on demand” Demonstrates warmth and affection Responds rapidly and positively to cues Mothers of secure infants tend to provide the appropriate level of response with interactional synchrony, in which caregivers respond to infants appropriately and both caregiver and child match emotional states. Way for mothers to produce insecurely attached infants, according to Ainsworth, is to ignore their behavioral cues, to behave inconsistently with them, and to ignore or reject their social efforts.

What roles do parents play in producing attachment? Fathers Expressions of nurturance, warmth, affection, support, and concern are extremely important to infant emotional and social well-being Little mention of the father and his potential contributions to the life of the infant in early theorizing and research on attachment. Ask: Why do you think this is? First, John Bowlby, who provided the initial theory of attachment, suggested that there was something unique about the mother–child relationship. He believed the mother was uniquely equipped, biologically, to provide sustenance for the child, and he concluded that this capability led to the development of a special relationship between mothers and children. Second, the early work on attachment was influenced by the traditional social views of the time, which considered it “natural” for the mother to be the primary caregiver, while the father’s role was to work outside the home to provide a living for his family. Ask: What caused this to change? Societal norms are changing

Social Referencing Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference.

Fathers as Social Partners Fathers usually spend less time with infants than mothers do and are less involved parents Reasons: Fathers’ own ideas of appropriate male behavior Mothers often limit fathers’ interactions with their children Quality of marital relationship is best predictor Happier husbands tend to be more involved fathers

Comparing Mothers and Fathers Selected research findings: Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their fathers as infants (Trautmann-Villalba et al., 2006). Infants may be equally securely attached to both parents, more attached to their mothers, or more attached to their fathers (Belsky et al., 2006). Close father–infant relationships can teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion (Boyce et al., 2006). Close relationships with their infants reduce fathers’ risk of depression (Borke et al., 2007; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007). Mothers tend to engage in more caregiving and comforting, and fathers tend to engage in more high-intensity play (Kochanska et al., 2008). When toddlers are about to explore, they often seek their father’s approval, expecting fun from their fathers and comfort from their mothers (Lamb, 2000).

Infant Day Care Family day care Center day care Child care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it. Center day care Child care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children. Usually the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

Infant Day Care

Good news: Direct benefits High-quality child care outside home produces only minor differences Good news: Indirect benefits Children in lower income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit Bad news: Infants less secure when in low-quality child care Children who spend long hours in child-care have a lower ability to work independently Children who spend ten or more hours a week in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class Good news: research finds little or no difference in the strength or nature of parental attachment bonds of infants who have been in high quality child care compared with infants raised solely by their parents. Ballooning body of research finds that the effects of participation in group child care are neither unambiguously positive or unambiguously negative. What is clear, though, is that the quality of child care is critical. Good news: Direct benefits High-quality child care outside home produces only minor differences from home care in most respects, and may even enhance certain aspects of development. Good news: Indirect benefits Children in lower income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit from the educational and social experiences in child care, and from higher income produced by parental employment. Bad news: Infants may be somewhat less secure when they are placed in low-quality child care, if they are placed in multiple child-care arrangements, or if their mothers are relatively insensitive and unresponsive. Children who spend long hours in outside-the-home child-care situations have lower ability to work independently and have less effective time management skills. Children who spend ten or more hours a week in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class.

The Effects of Infant Day Care The impact of non-maternal care depends on many factors. Psychosocial characteristics, including secure attachment, are influenced more by the mother’s warmth than by the number of hours spent in non-maternal care. Quality of care is crucial, no matter who provides that care.