Gender & Peer Relationships Middle Childhood through Early Adolescence Chapter 8

The Biology of Sex 23 pairs of chromosomes 23rd pair called sex chromosomes Females have two large X chromosomes Males’ pair mismatched,have one X and one smaller Y X and Y chromosomes also differ in function SRY gene, the sex-determining region of Y Transforms “indifferent” gonads into testes Sex differentiation begins at about 5 weeks Fetus first developed indifferent, unisex gonads Can become either ovaries or testes Testes then produce masculinizing hormones Testosterone, anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH)

Sex vs Gender Sex reserved for biologically determined processes Gender used for socially influenced characteristics Difficult to apply these conventions consistently

Early Sex Role Development Sex role development includes the: formation of gender identity acquisition of gender-related behaviors Gender identity – awareness of gender assignment and understanding of its meaning (2 ½ yrs of age) – label themselves Gender stability – understanding that, over time, one’s gender category stays the same (3 -4 yrs) Gender constancy – recognizing that gender category membership is permanent, that it could never change, even if one’s behavior or appearance were changed to resemble the other gender (around 6 yrs of age) – depends on logical thinking skills

Role of Biology in Gender Identity Genitalia (determines social assignment) Comfort with chromosomal identity – it is possible that biology can exert an influence on how “male” or “female” one feels, or at least on how comfortable one is with a particular gender assignment - some have rejected gender reassignment by the time they reach adolescence, thus socialization may not be as powerful as it was once thought to be in the development of gender identity

Role of Social Processes Social assignment – based on genitals Verbal reminders Information given – children who know about genitals have a better grasp of gender constancy & their own gender identity is more advanced

Gender & Behavior Table 8.1, p. 294 Differences are small & don’t necessarily correspond to stereotypes Hormonal differences may impact behavior Differences can be situationally dependent, affected by historical change & related to developmental period e.g. males & females in the U.S. do not differ on most tests of math achievement before grade 12, even thought they did differ 20 years ago; the more cultural attitudes favor gender equality, there are as many or more girls as boys among top math performers

Sex Segregation Both an outcome of gender differences & a source of gender differences Females – 2 1/2 ; Males – 3 Cross-cultural Increases with age until puberty Borderwork – mixed gender interactions – follow rules (table 8.2, p. 296)

Play Boys: Higher physical activity & aggression; dominance hierarchies are established via rough & tumble play Spend time with those with shared interests Compete more Themes are adventure & heroism Domineering, power assertive speech Girls: Smaller groups; choice is based more on personality More cooperative Themes are beauty & romance, glamour Collaborative, affiliative speech

Role of Biology in Behavior Differences Hormones – reciprocating relationship: androgens increase aggression and experiences, such as family conflict & aggressive sports can increase androgen levels Brain structure & functioning – female brains are less lateralized, possibly giving females advantage in language

Role of Cognition in Sex Differences Self-socialization: Children actively seek to make their behavior consistent with their gender identity (gender typical choices), whether or not they experience social pressure to do so Gender stability increases the likelihood of gender based choices, even over more attractive choices Gender intensification hypothesis (adolescence) – falling back on stereotyped notions of masculinity/femininity in order to cope with the demands of establishing an adult identity - little evidence for Gender schemas – networks of expectations and beliefs about male and female characteristics; impact how children evaluate behavior and the kinds of behavior they choose for themselves Gender stereotypes – beliefs about sex differences – likely to influence behavior even if untrue

Role of Parenting in Sex Differences Freud’s psychoanalytic theory – identification with same sex parent – involves imitation Social learning theory (modeling & differential treatment) Mothers talk more, esp about emotions, with girls; more supportive speech with girls Parents more often pressure boys to not express feelings Fathers disapprove of cross- sex behavior and have increased levels of confrontation & rough-housing more with sons Daughters are more often encouraged to yield to peers in conflict & take others’ perspectives & feelings into account

Role of Peer Relationships Sex-segregation – increases the differences beyond biology & parenting social dosage effect Adolescents begin to build cross-gender groups, but different interaction styles can create difficulty Females are less powerful in mixed-gender groups due to more cooperative discourse style Males are less prepared for intimate relationships & give less support for feeling expression in heterosexual dyads

Multidimensional Theory Multiple reciprocal influences personal, behavioral, environmental biology, cognitive, affective, social distal & proximal processes Multicultural – there are differences across culture, but most cultures place restrictions on gender roles Self-monitoring & prediction – internalized standards for performance are developed based on models, learning & others’ responses to behavior; these social influences influence motivation, expectations for success & self-efficacy ( how well can one fit the gender category)

Peer Groups Real-world laboratory for trying out & improving relational skills Have norms or shared cultural conventions Help define type & range of relationships & interactions that are likely permissible Have properties & processes, such as hierarchial organization & cohesiveness

Opportunities Provided by Peer Groups Communication practice Conflict resolution Joint goal-setting Cooperative learning Shared decision making Development of empathy Tolerance for others Sense of belonging Competitive & team-player skills

Peer Groups Need for acceptance, approval, and belonging ; identity development – social comparison Friendship dyads Cliques – middle childhood, voluntary social or friendship groups of 3 – 9 members, informal, structure is flexible, member turnover is common; decline over course of high-school (de-grouping) Crowds – larger, reputation based groups, composed of numerous cliques, become more important in mid-adolescence

Peer Group Formation & Maintenance Selection – niche picking (homophily: similar behaviors & attributes) Influence is primarily indirect as opposed to overtly coercive (i.e. positive reinforcement, modeling, information exchange) Limits range of opportunities (norms & roles) Motivation to engage in both beneficial & risky beh. Participation with the group in shared extracurricular activity – increased high school graduation rates & less criminal activity (esp. for those at high risk)

Social Competence A broad construct with regard to behaviors that are criterion (required) for peer group acceptance (e.g. empathy, valuing relationships, perspective taking, mature moral judgments) Social skills (eye contact, use of language) – important contributors to social competence Treatment: a combination of social skills training for individuals & enhancement of the cooperative nature of the individual’s peer group Competitive & non-competitive activities are important for facilitating social competence & socioemotional development

Measurement of Individuals Within the Peer Group Sociometry – assessment of social competence using children’s nomination of peers to evaluate status (Moreno 1934) Social preference score – number of positive nominations Social impact score – total number of nominations (both + & -); a measure of getting noticed

Sociometric Statuses Popular children are those who receive many positive nominations and few negative Rejected children are those who receive many negative nominations and few positive Neglected children are those who receive few nominations, either positive or negative Average children are those who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations (near their group mean) Controversial children are those who receive many negative and many positive nominations – disruptive, class leaders

Sociometrics - Individual Characteristics Popular: Greater perspective-taking skills, self-regulation, self- control, problem-solving ability Rejected: Least socially skilled of all groups Rejected-aggressive: Negativity, disruptiveness – predictive of poor academic records, criminal behavior, drug use, later externalizing problems Rejected-withdrawn: Socially anxious and inept – predictive of later internalizing probs – depression, loneliness , psychological over-control Neglected: Less aggressive and less sociable, but not especially anxious Average: Lower social competence than popular, but less aggression than rejected-aggressive Controversial: Difficult to typify because they are few in number, status lacks measurement stability

Sociometry Gender and cultural differences Less tolerance of gender-inconsistent behavior by males, socially withdrawn girls less rejected Aggression associated with peer rejection, and helpfulness is associated with popularity, across Western and non-Western cultures Some differences in how adults intervene Stability of categories and outcomes Popular and rejected, most extreme categories, also the most stable Neglected and controversial status categories show most instability